辦公自動(dòng)化外文文獻(xiàn)及譯文

1、中 北 大 學(xué) 信 息 商 務(wù) 學(xué) 院畢業(yè)論文外文文獻(xiàn)原文及譯文學(xué)生姓名： 林慧萍 學(xué)號(hào)： 08060341x08 系 別： 電子與計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)系 專(zhuān) 業(yè)： 計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)與技術(shù) 指導(dǎo)教師： 郭鐵成 2012 年 5 月第1頁(yè) 共10頁(yè)old and new models for office automationelliot colethe emerging generation of office automation systems combines new and existing software and procedures. while managers may be able to

2、select from a broad array of software tools, they may also be required to use certain others. this article discusses organization design as the context for office automation; mature computer based systems as one application of organization design variables; and emerging office automation systems as

3、another application of those variables. the article concludes that management information system models developed for mature systems may be helpful where the use of software application is required for the individual worker; diffusion of innovation models recently developed for computing systems may

4、 be helpful where the type of software is optional for the individual worker. the emerging generation of office automation systems combines new concepts and components with existing ones. while there may be a combination of first-time applications for some organizational activities, there may be rep

5、lacement applications for others. our ability to understand and plan for office automation depends on the availability and adequacy of our models. this article examines some of the assumptions underlying office automation, and then evaluates the adequacy of current models applied to the analysis and

6、 implementation of both the first-time and replacement applications. the article begins with a discussion of office automations context factors in organization design. next is a discussion of mature computer-based information systems, particularly management information systems (mis), followed by th

7、eir similarities and different from emerging information systems. the final section examines the use of diffusion of innovation models and their relevance to office automation studies within the scope of information science.organization design organization design is concerned with the structure and

8、function of organizations, and consequently occupies a central role in office automation activities. such design involves two basic elements, the types of positions in organizations and control over task structure. office automation systems assume the presence of both these elements.types of personn

9、el computers have been assisting humans for nearly 40 years. what makes the earlier user communities different from the emerging communities is the level of positions that are affected. now managers are becoming end-users. in the past, white collar workers have been classified as professional, manag

10、erial, and clerical, based on the horizontal (breadth) and vertical (depth) specialization of their tasks. professional positions have great vertical specialization, i.e., they require great depth of knowledge in a narrow area. in contrast, management positions require great horizontal specializatio

11、n, i.e., they require great breadth of knowledge but with narrow depth. managers are considered generalists rather than specialists. clerical positions are narrow in breadth and depth. the first computer users were professionals (scientists) who applied information technology to extend the capabilit

12、ies of their work teams. these value-added applications, to use landau, bair, and shalom terminology, included solving complex mathematical problems. todays computer users routinely include a broad spectrum of professionals who use these tools in pure research, applied research, and professional pra

13、ctice. next, clerical personnel became users. computers appeared in functional areas of organizations with large clerical staffs, what man calls the first office automation revolution. in these areas, applications included transaction processing, for example, payroll, inventory, and order-entry. aut

14、omation was introduced principally for what landau, bair, and shalom call cost displacement applications, saving labor costs by substituting capital for labor. currently, the user community is expanding to include management staff. few managers in organizations of any size have been untouched by com

15、puter services and systems. at a minimum, they have received computer printout reports. at most, they may have used systems through some intermediary. in the emerging generation of office automation, as martin has described, managers are expected to become hands-on users of an array of software. an

16、objective of this generation of office automation is to remove certain tasks from managerial and professional positions by reallocation to a combination of clerical positions and information processing hardware and software. open systems models of organizations, discussed by daniel in this issue of

17、perspectives, provides an understanding of these design issues.control task structure task structure includes both (1) what work one is to perform, and (2) how one is to perform it. it is the how which is the primary focus here. to the classical management of school which was prominent early in this

18、 century, deciding how work was to be performed was a management responsibility, not merely a management prerogative. followers of this school of thought directed their attention primarily to the production activities of industry. responsibility for structuring the tasks for clerical workers is stil

19、l generally considered to rest with management. many of the tasks of those workers have been described as routine, standardized, structured, and consequently easily rationalized, i.e., separated into a set of simple steps. it is this last quality that facilitates automating the function. in the huma

20、n relations school of thought, development of participatory management allows the workers to have an input in the design of their taskseven a substantial inputbut the responsibility for granting and approving the input has remained with management. in effect, the manager has standardized the work pr

21、ocesses of clerical and production line workers. organizations have several means of assuring that they are able to produce an output which is consistent. among these mechanisms are: (1) standardization of processthe procedures which are to be followedin performing a task, (2) standardization of out

22、putspecifications which each unit must meet, and (3) standardization of skillsinstruction on how work is to be performed. this standardization extends to the forms that are used, the tools applied, and the manner in which they are applied. in contrast, the manager is given abroad latitude over the p

23、rocesses to perform his or her job. the organization of ones work has been considered a prerogative of the manager, although stress man has challenged this view as a means of organizations better managing its information flow. in effect, this latitude represents a standardization of the what of a ma

24、nagers work, but not of the how, the processes which produce this output. the flexibility of the managers choice of work processes allows for the development of work habits, which to the external observer may seem idiosyncratic. the tools used by the manager in drafting memos and reportswhether penc

25、il and paper, pen and paper, dictation machine, or typewriter are generally a personal choice rather than an organizational mandate. this flexibility has long allowed management (and professional staff) to choose to bring work home. during media transformations, secretarial staff may reformat inform

26、ation prepared by the manager to conform to the organizations format, should one exist. for professionals, what tasks they perform, and how the tasks are to be performed are set out in codes of conduct which provide formal and informal guidelines. this is a means of external control in standardizing

27、 the process of organizational work. professional workers also perform some tasks which are similar to those of managerial staff, e.g., supervising projects and people. these tasks may be controlled by the organization according to its standardization of output. in summary, differences in the contro

28、l over task structure can be seen in professional, managerial, and clerical personnel. while managerial and clerical tasks have been largely the provinces of their organizationinternally controlledprofessional tasks involve the professional societys standards of acceptability, and thus are externall

29、y controlled. in this respect, the organization has relatively less control over the task structure and work processes for professional staff than for managerial and clerical staff. office automation is designed to have an impact on the task structure, i.e., the process by which one performs an acti

30、vity. these differences in task structure control raise the possibility of it being a mediating variable in office automation models; differences in task structure control may lead to qualitative differences in office system designs.computer-based information systems office automation includes a ran

31、ge of systems, including a variety of software and data. the combination may include databases which receive input from many organizational units and functional areas as well as personal databases. some systems are designed to be used by many workers in a mandatory and specified manner as part of th

32、e job requirements and as a condition of employment. other systems may be used to mechanize a task at the option of the user; the user is also free to perform that task manually.existing systems with required usemanagement information systems (mis) are a principal class of information system for mod

33、ern organizations. mis collects data for a database, manipulates it, and produces reports to a broad spectrum of managers concerned with decision making and accountability. many data entry tasks are small components of larger mis, with global databases spanning organization units and being continual

34、ly updated. in order for the system to process information properly, data entry personnel must use the system in a prescribed manner. if they do not, the accuracy and validity of the receiving database may be compromised. there is no room for individual creativity or innovation on the part of indivi

35、duals providing input to the systems database. transaction processing stuff use software according to a standard manual which applies to all workers with similar responsibilities. systems can be sabotaged by personnel in the data input chain who cannot or will not provide complete and accurate data

36、for the database. mis have a number of characteristics relevant to emerging office systems. first, mis are integrated across organization functions and levels of responsibility. individuals cannot unilaterally change system procedures without compromising the system. second, mis automate some organi

37、zational communication and information flows through collection and manipulation of input data. third, mis are planned and designed to serve stated organizational functions and objectives. fourth, workers, particularly those providing input data, must use the system, and use it in a prescribed manne

38、r. other examples of mandatory systems involve personal databases. word processing systems are designed to be used by secretaries and word processing operators to prepare documents which are requested by others, e.g., a manager or professional. document characteristicssuch as length, footnotes, perm

39、anenceand their contentssuch as vocabulary and topicmay vary across organization subunits. secretaries use software for tasks specified by others. again, use of this information technology is not voluntary to the worker, but is required for the job, and its use is defined in a standardized manner wi

40、thout modification by the individual user.existing systems with optional use managers enjoy some leeway in how they use mis output, notwithstanding the intended benefits built into the system design. mis have report-generating modules which prepare standardized reports for the anticipated needs of e

41、ach manager. while these systems specify mandatory modes for the entry of data, there are no enforceable requirements for use of system-generated output. in fact, there is a large literature on the failure of some systems to provide managers with information that is necessary for job performance, or

42、 even useful. specify reports may not be timely, accurate, or necessary. martin and system design stages are more frequent and more time-consuming than errors in the coding stage. these shortcomings have been an impetus for the development of user-controlled analytic tools and data management system

43、s.the distinction between mandatory and optional use of systems is important because it relates to different models used for the design and implementation of each of these systems. mandatory systems of office automation bear a resemblance to mis (particularly data input aspects), an area to which we

44、 may turn for models (see mick for a description of some of these models). in contrast, optional use or nonuse of systems may be seen as the diffusion of innovation which is discussed later in the article.新舊辦公自動(dòng)化模式埃利奧特科爾新一代的辦公自動(dòng)化系統(tǒng)結(jié)合新的和現(xiàn)有的軟件及程序。與此同時(shí)經(jīng)理能夠從浩如煙海的軟件工具中做出選擇，他們也可能需要使用某些其他軟件等等。這篇文章討論辦公自動(dòng)化在組

45、織設(shè)計(jì)中的應(yīng)用：成熟的計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)作為一個(gè)組織的設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)用，新興的辦公自動(dòng)化系統(tǒng)作為另一種應(yīng)用。文章得出結(jié)論，管理信息系統(tǒng)模式發(fā)展成為成熟的系統(tǒng)，可能應(yīng)用軟件的使用需要單個(gè)工人產(chǎn)生幫助;創(chuàng)新模式為計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)的開(kāi)發(fā)，特別是個(gè)體勞動(dòng)者可以選擇所需類(lèi)型的軟件，提供幫助。 新一代的辦公自動(dòng)化系統(tǒng)結(jié)合了現(xiàn)有的新概念和組件。雖然有可能是一個(gè)組合的首次應(yīng)用但也有可能替代了其他組合的應(yīng)用。辦公自動(dòng)化取決于我們的理解能力和計(jì)劃力。本文探索了一些辦公自動(dòng)化的基本假設(shè)，然后根據(jù)當(dāng)前充足的模型評(píng)估和分析了第一次使用的新產(chǎn)品和被替代應(yīng)用的舊產(chǎn)品。文章開(kāi)始討論辦公自動(dòng)化的相關(guān)設(shè)計(jì)的因素。接下來(lái)是討論了成熟的計(jì)算機(jī)信息系統(tǒng)，特

46、別是管理信息系統(tǒng)（mis），其次討論了信息系統(tǒng)和新興系統(tǒng)的相似之處和差異。最后，文章探討了使用創(chuàng)新模式和其相關(guān)的擴(kuò)散信息范圍內(nèi)的辦公自動(dòng)化研究科學(xué)。組織設(shè)計(jì) 組織設(shè)計(jì)、結(jié)構(gòu)和功能息息相關(guān)，從而占據(jù)了辦公自動(dòng)化活動(dòng)的核心作用。這樣的設(shè)計(jì)涉及兩個(gè)基本要素，各類(lèi)組織中的職位和控制任務(wù)結(jié)構(gòu)。辦公自動(dòng)化系統(tǒng)假定這兩種元素的存在。人才類(lèi)型 電腦已協(xié)助了人類(lèi)近40年。職位級(jí)別使得早期的用戶(hù)群體不同于新興集團(tuán)?，F(xiàn)在經(jīng)理們已經(jīng)成為終端用戶(hù)。 在過(guò)去，這被列為專(zhuān)業(yè)管理，基于廣度和深度的專(zhuān)業(yè)化的白領(lǐng)的任務(wù)。專(zhuān)業(yè)技術(shù)職務(wù)有很大的垂直專(zhuān)業(yè)化，也就是說(shuō)，他們?cè)谝粋€(gè)狹窄的區(qū)域需要巨大的知識(shí)深度。相比之下，管理崗位要求極大的

47、專(zhuān)業(yè)化水平，也就是說(shuō)，他們需要寬廣的知識(shí)面，但不需要太多的深度與廣度。經(jīng)理被認(rèn)為是通才，而不是專(zhuān)家。本文是基于在狹窄的廣度和深度而創(chuàng)作的。 第一臺(tái)計(jì)算機(jī)的用戶(hù)是可以應(yīng)用信息技術(shù)和擴(kuò)展工作團(tuán)隊(duì)能力的專(zhuān)家（科學(xué)家）。這些“增值”的應(yīng)用，使用朗拜爾西格曼的術(shù)語(yǔ)，包括解決復(fù)雜的數(shù)學(xué)問(wèn)題。今天的電腦用戶(hù)經(jīng)常是知識(shí)廣泛的專(zhuān)業(yè)人士，他們使用這些工具進(jìn)行專(zhuān)業(yè)研究，應(yīng)用研究和專(zhuān)業(yè)實(shí)踐。下一步，教職人員將成為用戶(hù)。電腦出現(xiàn)有大量文職工作人員的專(zhuān)業(yè)組織領(lǐng)域，這就是齊斯曼說(shuō)的第一次辦公自動(dòng)化革命。在這些領(lǐng)域的應(yīng)用包括以下這些：例如，交易處理，工資，庫(kù)存，訂單輸入。自動(dòng)化，被學(xué)者朗道，拜爾，西格曼稱(chēng)之為“成本位移”的應(yīng)

48、用，以勞動(dòng)力成本節(jié)省代替勞動(dòng)資本。 目前，辦公自動(dòng)化，包括管理人員的用戶(hù)群體正在擴(kuò)大。大部分組織中的個(gè)別經(jīng)理已經(jīng)接觸了電信設(shè)備制造商的計(jì)算機(jī)服務(wù)和系統(tǒng)。至少，他們已經(jīng)收到電腦打印報(bào)告?；蛟S，他們可能已經(jīng)通過(guò)一些中介機(jī)構(gòu)使用上了系統(tǒng)。正如馬丁所述，在新一代的辦公自動(dòng)化，經(jīng)理已如預(yù)期那樣成為首軟件陣列的用戶(hù)。 這一代的辦公自動(dòng)化的目標(biāo)是替代測(cè)試某些對(duì)通過(guò)重新分配到文職崗位相結(jié)合的任務(wù)管理和專(zhuān)業(yè)位置進(jìn)行信息處理的硬件和軟件。丹尼爾所組織討論的開(kāi)放式系統(tǒng)模型，提供了一個(gè)了解這些設(shè)計(jì)問(wèn)題的思路?？刂迫蝿?wù)結(jié)構(gòu) 任務(wù)結(jié)構(gòu)包括（1）去執(zhí)行什么工作；（2）如何執(zhí)行它。這里“如何做”成為主要焦點(diǎn)。在本世紀(jì)初出現(xiàn)的

49、古典管理學(xué)校強(qiáng)調(diào)決定如何進(jìn)行工作管理是一個(gè)經(jīng)理的責(zé)任，而不僅僅是一個(gè)管理特權(quán)，這個(gè)學(xué)校的追隨者認(rèn)為主導(dǎo)他們注意力的主要是生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)行業(yè)。人們對(duì)構(gòu)建文職任務(wù)的回應(yīng)仍然普遍是對(duì)管理責(zé)任的松懈。這些工人的任務(wù)普通，規(guī)范，層次分明，因此很容易合理化，即可以完成一組簡(jiǎn)單的步驟。這是有利于自動(dòng)化功能的最后保證。人類(lèi)關(guān)系學(xué)參與管理思想的發(fā)展，使工人在其設(shè)計(jì)中有一個(gè)輸入任務(wù)，甚至大量投入，但責(zé)任授予和批準(zhǔn)的輸入一直被管理。有效化，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化文書(shū)和生產(chǎn)一線工人的工作流程，這種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化延伸所使用的形式，工具的應(yīng)用，并延伸到它們的應(yīng)用方式。 相比之下，經(jīng)理在進(jìn)程執(zhí)行中，他的工作被賦予了廣泛的權(quán)利。組織中，經(jīng)理一個(gè)人的工作一直被認(rèn)為是一種特權(quán)，斯特拉斯曼雖然已經(jīng)質(zhì)疑這種觀點(diǎn)但組織的手段可以更好地管理其信息流。實(shí)際上，這個(gè)范圍代表一個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化：“什么”是經(jīng)理的工作，而不是