土木工程建筑外文翻譯外文文獻(xiàn)英文文獻(xiàn)鋼筋混凝土及土方工程簡(jiǎn)介

1、2 外文翻譯introduction to reinforced concrete and earth worksabstract： as a designer must first clear the building structure itself was designed and intensity levels, as well as related issues in-depth discussion and research, this paper describes on the reinforced concrete, earthwork engineering knowle

2、dge, let more in-depth understanding of this discusses the key, and the rational application of knowledge to help us design more excellent buildingkeywords: concrete, earthwork, structural safety朗讀顯示對(duì)應(yīng)的拉丁字符的拼音字典2.1 reinforced concreteplain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water

3、,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. the plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. the finished

4、product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions

5、in the reinforced concrete element.it is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. the two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concr

6、ete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. this is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product beco

7、mes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.the techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns,

8、 or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. for beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. in foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about

9、 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping.

10、 it must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50f. it is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that t

11、he chemical hydration reaction can take place. if drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. this would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.it is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in pro

12、portioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of

13、 the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.a trial s

14、ection has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. the trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first des

15、ign input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.the trial-and adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. the availability of handbooks, charts, an

16、d personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.2.2 earthwork because earthmoving methods and costs change more qu

17、ickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. in 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relativ

18、ely rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. to keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. gene

19、rally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). toreduce earthwor

20、k costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. this work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the

21、layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. from the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. on the site when further information becomes available he

22、 can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. it will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.the cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. this is not alwa

23、ys possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. the largest radius is obtained with the dragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.the disadvantages of the dragl

24、ine are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. they are a

25、nle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than t

26、hat of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. they can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundr

27、eds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. for hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. as soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to t

28、he beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m heaped. the largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m struck capacity ( 25 m heaped )and they are driven by a

29、tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards

30、on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. the smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m , and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m . special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m and the articulated type of about 0.5 m . the d

31、istinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks. 2.3

32、safety of structuresthe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. the “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be def

33、ined as the ratio between the conditions. this ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure. failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or, according to a more precise. common definition

34、. as the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. there are two categories of limit state :(1)ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. examples include local buckling or global instabi

35、lity of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fir

36、e and to explosions.(2)service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.computational methods used to verify structures with

37、respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.alternatively, with respect to the different use o

38、f factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the bas

39、is of its maximum strength. this strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).the stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live

40、 and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . from the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stress

41、es.(2)probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.the main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depen

42、d upon : (1)random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2)uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults and imperfections due to

43、 fabrication and erection of the structure );(3)uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).furthermore, probabilistic theories

44、mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1)importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4)predicted life of the stru

45、cture.all these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1)initial cost of the construction; (2)amortization funds for the duration of the construction; (3)cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction; (4)adverse impact on society; (5)moral an

46、d psychological views. the definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. however, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. for such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live loa

47、d and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depe

48、nd upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. these practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. the first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. th

49、e second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .references：1. hanjing yun. building decoration materials and their application. china building industry press .2000. 2. xia yan eds. civil engineering materials. wuhan univer

50、sity press .2009. 3. from before the king, huoman lin. building materials (first edition). lanzhou university press .1997 4. zhang xiong editor. building functional materials. china building industry press .2000. 5. yanhan dong, qian xiao qian ed. new building materials tutorial. china building mate

51、rials industry press .2005. 6. zhang fen qin, zhao man ed. building decoration materials. chongqing university press, .2007. 7. xuyou hui ed. building materials and learning. southwest jiaotong university press .2007. 1 中文翻譯鋼筋混凝土及土方工程簡(jiǎn)介 摘要：作為設(shè)計(jì)人員首先必須明確自身設(shè)計(jì)的建筑構(gòu)筑物得等級(jí)和強(qiáng)度，以及對(duì)相關(guān)問題進(jìn)行深入的討論和研究，本文主要敘述了關(guān)于鋼筋混凝

52、土，土方工程方面的相關(guān)知識(shí)，讓我們更加深入的了解這方面的主要關(guān)鍵論述，以及合理應(yīng)用知識(shí)來幫助我們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)更加優(yōu)良的建筑。關(guān)鍵詞：混凝土，土方工程，結(jié)構(gòu)安全度1.1鋼筋混凝土素混凝土是由水泥、水、細(xì)骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空氣，通常還有其他外加劑等經(jīng)過凝固硬化而成。將可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板內(nèi)，并將其搗實(shí)，然后進(jìn)行養(yǎng)護(hù)，以加速水泥與水的水化反應(yīng)，最后獲得硬化的混凝土。其最終制成品具有較高的抗壓強(qiáng)度和較低的抗拉強(qiáng)度。其抗拉強(qiáng)度約為抗壓強(qiáng)度的十分之一。因此，截面的受拉區(qū)必須配置抗拉鋼筋和抗剪鋼筋以增加鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)件中較弱的受拉區(qū)的強(qiáng)度。由于鋼筋混凝土截面在均質(zhì)性上與標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的木材或鋼的截面存在著差

53、異，因此，需要對(duì)結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)的基本原理進(jìn)行修改。將鋼筋混凝土這種非均質(zhì)截面的兩種組成部分按一定比例適當(dāng)布置，可以最好的利用這兩種材料。這一要求是可以達(dá)到的。因混凝土由配料攪拌成濕拌合物，經(jīng)過振搗并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一種需要的形狀。如果拌制混凝土的各種材料配合比恰當(dāng)，則混凝土制成品的強(qiáng)度較高，經(jīng)久耐用，配置鋼筋后，可以作為任何結(jié)構(gòu)體系的主要構(gòu)件。澆筑混凝土所需要的技術(shù)取決于即將澆筑的構(gòu)件類型，諸如：柱、梁、墻、板、基礎(chǔ)，大體積混凝土水壩或者繼續(xù)延長(zhǎng)已澆筑完畢并且已經(jīng)凝固的混凝土等。對(duì)于梁、柱、墻等構(gòu)件，當(dāng)模板清理干凈后應(yīng)該在其上涂油，鋼筋表面的銹及其他有害物質(zhì)也應(yīng)該被清除干凈。澆筑基礎(chǔ)前，應(yīng)將坑

54、底土夯實(shí)并用水浸濕6英寸，以免土壤從新澆的混凝土中吸收水分。一般情況下，除使用混凝土泵澆筑外，混凝土都應(yīng)在水平方向分層澆筑，并使用插入式或表面式高頻電動(dòng)振搗器搗實(shí)。必須記住，過分的振搗將導(dǎo)致骨料離析和混凝土泌漿等現(xiàn)象，因而是有害的。水泥的水化作用發(fā)生在有水分存在，而且氣溫在50f以上的條件下。為了保證水泥的水化作用得以進(jìn)行，必須具備上述條件。如果干燥過快則會(huì)出現(xiàn)表面裂縫，這將有損與混凝土的強(qiáng)度，同時(shí)也會(huì)影響到水泥水化作用的充分進(jìn)行。設(shè)計(jì)鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)件時(shí)顯然需要處理大量的參數(shù)，諸如寬度、高度等幾何尺寸，配筋的面積，鋼筋的應(yīng)變和混凝土的應(yīng)變，鋼筋的應(yīng)力等等。因此，在選擇混凝土截面時(shí)需要進(jìn)行試算并作

55、調(diào)整，根據(jù)施工現(xiàn)場(chǎng)條件、混凝土原材料的供應(yīng)情況、業(yè)主提出的特殊要求、對(duì)建筑和凈空高度的要求、所用的設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)范以及建筑物周圍環(huán)境條件等最后確定截面。鋼筋混凝土通常是現(xiàn)場(chǎng)澆注的合成材料，它與在工廠中制造的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)梁、柱等不同，因此對(duì)于上面所提到的一系列因素必須予以考慮。對(duì)結(jié)構(gòu)體系的各個(gè)部位均需選定試算截面并進(jìn)行驗(yàn)算，以確定該截面的名義強(qiáng)度是否足以承受所作用的計(jì)算荷載。由于經(jīng)常需要進(jìn)行多次試算，才能求出所需的截面，因此設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)第一次采用的數(shù)值將導(dǎo)致一系列的試算與調(diào)整工作。選擇混凝土截面時(shí)，采用試算與調(diào)整過程可以使復(fù)核與設(shè)計(jì)結(jié)合在一起。因此，當(dāng)試算截面選定后，每次設(shè)計(jì)都是對(duì)截面進(jìn)行復(fù)核。手冊(cè)、圖表和微

56、型計(jì)算機(jī)以及專用程序的使用，使這種設(shè)計(jì)方法更為簡(jiǎn)捷有效，而傳統(tǒng)的方法則是把鋼筋混凝土的復(fù)核與單純的設(shè)計(jì)分別進(jìn)行處理。1.2土方工程由于和土木工程中任何其他工種的施工方法與費(fèi)用相比較，土方挖運(yùn)的施工方法與費(fèi)用的變化都要快得多，因此對(duì)于有事業(yè)心的人來說，土方工程是一個(gè)可以大有作為的領(lǐng)域。在1935年，目前采用的利用輪胎式機(jī)械設(shè)備進(jìn)行土方挖運(yùn)的方法大多數(shù)還沒有出現(xiàn)。那是大部分土方是采用窄軌鐵路運(yùn)輸，在這目前來說是很少采用的。當(dāng)時(shí)主要的開挖方式是使用正鏟、反鏟、拉鏟或抓斗等挖土機(jī)，盡管這些機(jī)械目前仍然在廣泛應(yīng)用，但是它們只不過是目前所采用的許多方法中的一小部分。因此，一個(gè)工程師為了使自己在土方挖運(yùn)設(shè)備

57、方面的知識(shí)跟得上時(shí)代的發(fā)展，他應(yīng)當(dāng)花費(fèi)一些時(shí)間去研究現(xiàn)代的機(jī)械。一般說來，有關(guān)挖土機(jī)、裝載機(jī)和運(yùn)輸機(jī)械的唯一可靠而又最新的資料可以從制造廠商處獲得。土方工程或土方挖運(yùn)工程指的是把地表面過高處的土壤挖去（挖方），并把它傾卸到地表面過低的其他地方（填方）。為了降低土方工程費(fèi)用，填方量應(yīng)該等于挖方量，而且挖方地點(diǎn)應(yīng)該盡可能靠近土方量相等的填方地點(diǎn)，以減少運(yùn)輸量和填方的二次搬運(yùn)。土方設(shè)計(jì)這項(xiàng)工作落到了從事道路設(shè)計(jì)的工程師的身上，因?yàn)橥练焦こ痰脑O(shè)計(jì)比其他任何工作更能決定工程造價(jià)是否低廉。根據(jù)現(xiàn)有的地圖和標(biāo)高，道路工程師應(yīng)在設(shè)計(jì)繪圖室中的工作也并不是徒勞的。它將幫助他在最短的時(shí)間內(nèi)獲得最好的方案。費(fèi)用最低

58、的運(yùn)土方法是用同一臺(tái)機(jī)械直接挖方取土并且卸土作為填方。這并不是經(jīng)?？梢宰龅降模侨绻軌蜃龅絼t是很理想的，因?yàn)檫@樣做既快捷又省錢。拉鏟挖土機(jī)。推土機(jī)和正鏟挖土機(jī)都能做到這點(diǎn)。拉鏟挖土機(jī)的工作半徑最大。推土機(jī)所推運(yùn)的圖的數(shù)量最多，只是運(yùn)輸距離很短。拉鏟挖土機(jī)的缺點(diǎn)是只能挖比它本身低的土，不能施加壓力挖入壓實(shí)的土壤內(nèi)，不能在陡坡上挖土，而且挖。卸都不準(zhǔn)確。正鏟挖土機(jī)介于推土機(jī)和拉鏟挖土機(jī)的之間，其作用半徑大于推土機(jī)，但小于拉鏟挖土機(jī)。正鏟挖土機(jī)能挖取豎直陡峭的工作面，這種方式對(duì)推土機(jī)司機(jī)來說是危險(xiǎn)的，而對(duì)拉鏟挖土機(jī)則是不可能的。每種機(jī)械設(shè)備應(yīng)該進(jìn)行最適合它的性能的作業(yè)。正鏟挖土機(jī)不能挖比其停機(jī)平面低很多的土，而深挖堅(jiān)實(shí)的土壤時(shí)，反鏟挖土機(jī)最適用，但其卸料半徑比起裝有正鏟的同一挖土機(jī)的卸料半徑則要小很多。在比較平坦的場(chǎng)地開挖，如果用拉鏟或正鏟挖土機(jī)運(yùn)輸距離太遠(yuǎn)時(shí)，則裝有輪胎式的斗式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)就是比不可少的。它能在比較平的地面上挖較深的土（但只能挖機(jī)械本身下面的土），需要時(shí)可以將土運(yùn)至幾百米遠(yuǎn)，然后卸土并在卸土的過程中把土大致鏟平。在挖掘硬土?xí)r，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)在開挖場(chǎng)地經(jīng)常用一輛助推拖拉機(jī)（輪式或履帶式），對(duì)返回挖土的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)進(jìn)行助推這種施工方法是經(jīng)濟(jì)的。一旦鏟運(yùn)機(jī)裝滿，助推拖拉機(jī)就回到開挖的地點(diǎn)去幫助下一臺(tái)鏟運(yùn)機(jī)。斗式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)通常是功率非常大的機(jī)械，許多廠家制造的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)鏟斗容量為8 m