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1、Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2001) 17:104113 2001 Springer-Verlag London Limited Fixture Clamping Force Optimisation and its Impact on Workpiece Location Accuracy B. Li and S. N. Melkote George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia, USA Workpiece motion a

2、rising from localised elastic deformation at fi xtureworkpiece contacts owing to clamping and machining forces is known to affect signifi cantly the workpiece location accuracy and, hence, the fi nal part quality. This effect can be minimised through fi xture design optimisation. The clamping force

3、is a critical design variable that can be optimised to reduce the workpiece motion. This paper presents a new method for determining the optimum clamping forces for a multiple clamp fi xture subjected to quasi-static machining forces. The method uses elastic contact mechanics models to represent the

4、 fi xtureworkpiece contact and involves the formulation and solution of a multi-objective constrained optimisation model. The impact of clamping force optimisation on workpiece location accuracy is analysed through examples involving a 32-1 type milling fi xture. Keywords: Elasticcontactmodelling;Fi

5、xtureclamping force; Optimisation 1.Introduction The location and immobilisation of the workpiece are two critical factors in machining. A machining fi xture achieves these functions by locating the workpiece with respect to a suitable datum, and clamping the workpiece against it. The clamping force

6、 applied must be large enough to restrain the workpiece motion completely during machining. However, excessive clamping force can induce unacceptable level of workpiece elastic distortion, which will adversely affect its location and, in turn, the part quality. Hence, it is necessary to determine th

7、e optimum clamping forces that minimise the workpiece location error due to elastic deformation while satisfying the total restraint requirement. Previous researchers in the fi xture analysis and synthesis area have used the fi nite-element (FE) modelling approach or Correspondenceandoffprintrequest

8、sto:DrS.N.Melkote, George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0405, USA. E-mail: the rigid-body modelling approach. Extensive work based on the FE approach has been reported 18. With the exception of DeMet

9、er 8, a common limitation of this approach is the large model size and computation cost. Also, most of the FE- based research has focused on fi xture layout optimisation, and clamping force optimisation has not been addressed adequately. Several researchers have addressed fi xture clamping force opt

10、imisation based on the rigid-body model 911. The rigid body modelling approach treats the fi xture-element and work- piece as perfectly rigid solids. DeMeter 12, 13 used screw theory to solve for the minimum clamping force. The overall problem was formulated as a linear program whose objective was t

11、o minimise the normal contact force at each locating point by adjusting the clamping force intensity. The effect of the contact friction force was neglected because of its relatively small magnitude compared with the normal contact force. Since this approach is based on the rigid body assumption, it

12、 can uniquely only handle 3D fi xturing schemes that involve no more than 6 unknowns. Fuh and Nee 14 also presented an iterative search-based method that computes the minimum clamping force by assuming that the friction force directions are known a priori. The primary limitation of the rigid-body an

13、alysis is that it is statically indeterminate when more than six contact forces are unknown. As a result, workpiece displace- ments cannot be determined uniquely by this method. This limitation may be overcome by accounting for the elasticity of the fi xtureworkpiece system 15. For a relatively rigi

14、d workpiece, the location of the workpiece in the machining fi xture is strongly infl uenced by the localised elastic defor- mation at the fi xturing points. Hockenberger and DeMeter 16 used empirical contact force-deformation relations (called meta- functions) to solve for the workpiece rigid-body

15、displacements due to clamping and quasi-static machining forces. The same authors also investigated the effect of machining fi xture design parameters on workpiece displacement 17. Gui et al 18 reported an elastic contact model for improving workpiece location accuracy through optimisation of the cl

16、amping force. However, they did not address methods for calculating the fi xtureworkpiece contact stiffness. In addition, the application of their algorithm for a sequence of machining loads rep- resenting a fi nite tool path was not discussed. Li and Melkote 19 and Hurtado and Melkote 20 used conta

17、ct mechanics to Fixture Clamping Force Optimisation105 solve for the contact forces and workpiece displacement pro- duced by the elastic deformation at the fi xturing points owing to clamping loads. They also developed methods for optimising the fi xture layout 21 and clamping force using this metho

18、d 22. However, clamping force optimisation for a multiclamp system and its impact on workpiece accuracy were not covered in these papers. This paper presents a new algorithm based on the contact elasticity method for determining the optimum clamping forces for a multiclamp fi xtureworkpiece system s

19、ubjected to quasi- static loads. The method seeks to minimise the impact of workpiece motion due to clamping and machining loads on the part location accuracy by systematically optimising the clamping forces. A contact mechanics model is used to deter- mine a set of contact forces and displacements,

20、 which are then used for the clamping force optimisation. The complete prob- lem is formulated and solved as a multi-objective constrained optimisation problem. The impact of clamping force optimis- ation on workpiece location accuracy is analysed via two examples involving a 32-1 fi xture layout fo

21、r a milling oper- ation. 2.FixtureWorkpiece Contact Modelling 2.1Modelling Assumptions The machining fi xture consists of L locators and C clamps with spherical tips. The workpiece and fi xture materials are linearly elastic in the contact region, and perfectly rigid else- where. The workpiecefi xtu

22、re system is subjected to quasi- static loads due to clamping and machining. The clamping force is assumed to be constant during machining. This assumption is valid when hydraulic or pneumatic clamps are used. In reality, the elasticity of the fi xtureworkpiece contact region is distributed. However

23、, in this model development, lumped contact stiffness is assumed (see Fig. 1). Therefore, the contact force and localised deformation at the ith fi xturing point can be related as follows: Fij= kijdij(1) where kij(j = x,y,z) denotes the contact stiffness in the tangential and normal directions of th

24、e local xi,yi,zicoordinate frame, dij Fig. 1. A lumped-spring fi xtureworkpiece contact model. xi, yi, zi, denote the local coordinate frame at the ith contact. (j = x,y,z) are the corresponding localised elastic deformations along the xi,yi, and ziaxes, respectively, Fij(j = x,j,z) represents the l

25、ocal contact force components with Fixand Fiybeing the local xiand yicomponents of the tangential force, and Fizthe normal force. 2.2WorkpieceFixture Contact Stiffness Model The lumped compliance at a spherical tip locator/clamp and workpiece contact is not linear because the contact radius varies n

26、onlinearly with the normal force 23. The contact deformation due to the normal force Piacting between a spherical tipped fi xture element of radius Riand a planar workpiece surface can be obtained from the closed-form Hertz- ian solution to the problem of a sphere indenting an elastic half-space. Fo

27、r this problem, the normal deformation Dinis given as 23, p. 93: Din=S 9(Pi)2 16Ri(E*)2D 1/3 (2) where 1 E* = 1 n2 w Ew + 1 n2 f Ef Ewand Ef are Youngs moduli for the workpiece and fi xture materials, respectively, and nwand nfare Poisson ratios for the workpiece and fi xture materials, respectively

28、. The tangential deformation Dit(= Ditxor Dityin the local xi and yitangential directions, respectively) due to a tangential force Qi(= Qixor Qiy) has the following form 23, p. 217: Dti t= Qi 8aiS 2 nf Gf + 2 nw Gw D (3) where ai=S3P i Ri 4 S1 n f Ef + 1 nw Ew DD 1/3 and Gwand Gf are shear moduli fo

29、r the workpiece and fi xture materials, respectively. A reasonable linear approximation of the contact stiffness can be obtained from a least-squares fi t to Eq. (2). This yields the following linearised contact stiffness values: kiz= 8.82S16Ri (E*)2 9 D 1/3 (4) kix= kiy= 4 E*S 2 nj Gf + 2 nw Gw D 1

30、 kiz(5) In deriving the above linear approximation, the normal force Piwas assumed to vary from 0 to 1000 N, and the correspond- ing R2 value of the least-squares fi t was found to be 0.94. 3.Clamping Force Optimisation The goal is to determine the set of optimal clamping forces that will minimise t

31、he workpiece rigid-body motion due to 106B. Li and S. N. Melkote localised elastic deformation induced by the clamping and machining loads, while maintaining the fi xtureworkpiece sys- tem in quasi-static equilibrium during machining. Minimisation of the workpiece motion will, in turn, reduce the lo

32、cation error. This goal is achieved by formulating the problem as a multi- objective constrained optimisation problem, as described next. 3.1Objective Function Formulation Since the workpiece rotation due to fi xturing forces is often quite small 17 the workpiece location error is assumed to be dete

33、rmined largely by its rigid-body translation Ddw= DXw DYwDZwT, where DXw, DYw, and DZware the three orthogonal components of Ddwalong the Xg, Yg, and Zgaxes (see Fig. 2). The workpiece location error due to the fi xturing forces can then be calculated in terms of the L2norm of the rigid-body displac

34、ement as follows: iDdwi =(DXw)2+ (DYw)2+ (DZw)2)(6) where i i denotes the L2norm of a vector. In particular, the resultant clamping force acting on the workpiece will adversely affect the location error. When mul- tiple clamping forces are applied to the workpiece, the resultant clamping force, PR C

35、= PRXPRyPRZT, has the form: PR C= RCPC (7) wherePC= PL+1. . .PL+CTistheclampingforcevector, RC= nL+1. . .nL+CTis the clamping force direction matrix, nL+i= cosaL+icosbL+icosgL+iTis the clamping force direction cosine vector, and aL+i, bL+i, and gL+iare angles made by the clamping force vector at the

36、 ith clamping point with respect to the Xg, Yg, Zgcoordinate axes (i = 1,2,. . .,C). In this paper, the workpiece location error due to contact region deformation is assumed to be infl uenced only by the normal force acting at the locatorworkpiece contacts. The frictional force at the contacts is re

37、latively small and is neg- lected when analysing the impact of the clamping force on the workpiece location error. Denoting the ratio of the normal contact stiffness, kiz, to the smallest normal stiffness among all locators, ksz, by ji(i = 1,. . .,L), and assuming that the workpiece rests on NX, NY,

38、 and NZnumber of locators oriented in the Xg, Fig. 2. Workpiece rigid body translation and rotation. Yg, and Zgdirections, the equivalent contact stiffness in the Xg, Yg, and Zgdirections can be calculated as kszSO NX i=1 jiD, kszSO NY i=1 jiD, and kszSO NZ i=1 jiD respectively (see Fig. 3). The wor

39、kpiece rigid-body motion, Ddw, due to clamping action can now be written as: Ddw= 3 PR X kszSO NX i=1 jiD PR Y kszSO NY i=1 jiD PR Z kszSO NZ i=1 jiD4 T (8) The workpiece motion, and hence the location error can be reduced by minimising the weighted L2norm of the resultant clamping force vector. The

40、refore, the fi rst objective function can be written as: Minimize iPR Ciw=!11 PR X O NX i=1 ji2 2 +1 PR Y O NY i=1 ji2 2 +1 PR Z O NZ i=1 ji2 2 2 (9) Note that the weighting factors are proportional to the equival- ent contact stiffnesses in the Xg, Yg, and Zgdirections. The components of PR Care un

41、iquely determined by solving the contact elasticity problem using the principle of minimum total complementary energy 15, 23. This ensures that the clamping forces and the corresponding locator reactions are “true” solutions to the contact problem and yield “true” rigid- body displacements, and that

42、 the workpiece is kept in static equilibrium by the clamping forces at all times. Therefore, the minimisation of the total complementary energy forms the second objective function for the clamping force optimisation and is given by: Minimise (U* W*) = 1 2FO L+C i=1 (Fix)2 kix +O L+C i=1 (Fiy)2 kiy +

43、O L+C i=1 (Fiz)2 kiz G (10) = .lTQl Fig. 3. The basis for the determination of the weighting factor for the L2norm calculation. Fixture Clamping Force Optimisation107 where U* represents the complementary strain energy of the elastically deformed bodies, W* represents the complementary work done by

44、the external force and moments, Q = diag c1xc1yc1z. . . cL+C x cL+C y cL+C z is the diagonal contact compliance matrix, cij= (kij)1, and l = F1xF1yF1z. . . FL+C x FL+C y FL+C z Tis the vector of all contact forces. 3.2Friction and Static Equilibrium Constraints The optimisation objective in Eq. (10)

45、 is subject to certain constraints and bounds. Foremost among them is the static friction constraint at each contact. Coulombs friction law states that(Fix)2+ (Fiy)2) # misFiz(mis is the static friction coeffi cient). A conservative and linearised version of this nonlinear con- straint can be used a

46、nd is given by 19: uFixu + uFiyu # misFiz(11) Since quasi-static loads are assumed, the static equilibrium of the workpiece is ensured by including the following force and moment equilibrium equations (in vector form): OF = 0 (12) OM = 0 where the forces and moments consist of the machining forces,

47、workpiece weight and the contact forces in the normal and tangential directions. 3.3Bounds Since the fi xtureworkpiece contact is strictly unilateral, the normal contact force, Pi, can only be compressive. This is expressed by the following bound on Pi: Pi$ 0(i = 1, . . ., L + C)(13) where it is ass

48、umed that normal forces directed into the workpiece are positive. In addition, the normal compressive stress at a contact cannot exceed the compressive yield strength (Sy) of the workpiece material. This upper bound is written as: Pi# SyAi(i = 1, . . .,L+C)(14) where Ai is the contact area at the it

49、h workpiecefi xture con- tact. The complete clamping force optimisation model can now be written as: Minimize f =Hf1 f2J =H.l TQl iPR CiwJ (15) subject to: (11)(14). 4.Algorithm for Model Solution The multi-objective optimisation problem in Eq. (15) can be solved by the e-constraint method 24. This

50、method identifi es one of the objective functions as primary, and converts the other into a constraint. In this work, the minimisation of the complementary energy (f1) is treated as the primary objective function, and the weighted L2norm of the resultant clamping force (f2) is treated as a constrain

51、t. The choice of f1as the primary objective ensures that a unique set of feasible clamping forces is selected. As a result, the workpiecefi xture system is driven to a stable state (i.e. the minimum energy state) that also has the smallest weighted L2norm for the resultant clamping force. The conver

52、sion of f2into a constraint involves specifying the weighted L2norm to be less than or equal to e, where e is an upper bound on f2. To determine a suitable e, it is initially assumed that all clamping forces are unknown. The contact forces at the locating and clamping points are computed by consider

53、ing only the fi rst objective function (i.e. f1). While this set of contact forces does not necessarily yield the lowest clamping forces, it is a “true” feasible solution to the contact elasticity problem that can completely restrain the workpiece in the fi xture. The weighted L2norm of these clampi

54、ng forces is computed and taken as the initial value of e. Therefore, the clamping force optimisation problem in Eq. (15) can be rewritten as: Minimize f1= .lTQl(16) subject to: iPR Ciw$ e, (11)(14). An algorithm similar to the bisection method for fi nding roots of an equation is used to determine

55、the lowest upper bound for iPR Ciw. By decreasing the upper bound e as much as possible, the minimum weighted L2norm of the resultant clamping force is obtained. The number of iterations, K, needed to terminate the search depends on the required prediction accuracy d and ueu, and is given by 25: K =

56、Flog2Sueu dDG (17) where I denotes the ceiling function. The complete algorithm is given in Fig. 4. 5.Determination of Optimum Clamping Forces During Machining The algorithm presented in the previous section can be used to determine the optimum clamping force for a single load vector applied to the

57、workpiece. However, during milling the magnitude and point of cutting force application changes continuously along the tool path. Therefore, an infi nite set of optimum clamping forces corresponding to the infi nite set of machining loads will be obtained with the algorithm of Fig. 4. This substanti

58、ally increases the computational burden and calls for a criterion/procedure for selecting a single set of clamping forces that will be satisfactory and optimum for the entire tool path. A conservative approach to addressing these issues is discussed next. Consider a fi nite number (say m) of sample

59、points along the tool path yielding m corresponding sets of optimum clamp- ing forces denoted as P1opt, P2opt, . . ., Pm opt. At each sampling 108B. Li and S. N. Melkote Fig. 4. Clamping force optimisation algorithm (used in example 1). point, the following four worst-case machining load vectors are

60、 considered: FX max= FmaxX F1YF1ZT FY max= F2XFmaxY F2ZT FZ max= F3XF3YFmaxZ T(18) Frmax= F4XF4YF4ZT where Fmax X , Fmax Y , and Fmax Z are the maximum Xg, Yg, and Zg components of the machining force, the superscripts 1, 2, 3 of FX, FY, and FZstand for the other two orthogonal machining forcecompon