美國板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)農(nóng)用機械外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯@中英文翻譯@外文翻譯

Production and Marketing of Chestnuts in the Southeastern United States1 Robert C. Hochmuth, Robert D. Wallace, Peter J. Van Blokland, and Jeffrey G. Williamson 2 This is a revised copy of the original document, An Introduction to Production, Marketing, and Economics of Growing Chestnuts in the South East United Sates, by R.D. Wallace and P.J. VanBlockland. 1989. University of Florida, Dept of Food Resource Economics. Staff report. #354 Introduction Chestnuts (Castanea sp.) are represented by several species of trees in the beech family (Fagaceae). The chestnut is native to warm, temperate areas the Northern Hemis phere. The United States is one of the few nations in the world that can grow chestnuts and does not have a significant commercial chestnut industry. Because the United States has such a small (less than 1 percent of world production) chestnut industry, chestnuts are imported to the United States in quantities with total annual value exceeding $20 million. Development of new chestnuts cultivars, advances in propagation, and cultural techniques now allow for expansion of the commercial chestnut industry in the United States. Chestnuts may make a viable alternative crop for small farmers in Florida who are looking to diversify their operations. History Few tree crops have as much historical importance as a food source throughout the world as do chestnuts. Chestnuts were one of the earliest tree crops to be domesticated and were even mentioned in Chinese poetry more than 5000 years ago. The European settlers of North America found the New World was virtually one solid chestnut forest. The American chestnut was once among the most common trees in the eastern forest, from Maine to Georgia and west to the Mississippi. This amazingly useful tree offers rot-resistant lumber, which was used for several items, from fence posts to furniture. The chestnut tree was also a source of tannin, in addition to its beautiful crop of nuts. But the accidental introduction of the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) from the Orient in 1904 killed almost every American chestnut in the United States in less than 40 years. The loss of the chestnut in the United States is considered one of the greatest botanical disasters in Western history. The chestnut industry is highly developed in Europe and in the Orient. The Republic of Korea and China are the top two countries for chestnut production； together these countries produce more than 40 percent of the worlds chestnuts. Other major chestnut-producing countries include Italy, Turkey, Bolivia, Japan, Spain, and Portugal. The primary exporters of chestnuts to the United States are Italy, China, and The Republic of Korea. Chestnut imports to the United States increased from 4,500 metric tons in 2003 to 5,400 metric tons in 2004, an increase that indicates the growing demand for chestnuts among U.S. consumers. The annual value of chestnuts imported to the United States is more than $20 million. The development of new American x Chinese hybrid chestnut cultivars - which are resistant to chestnut blight and produce large, sweet nuts - have helped to make possible expansion of the domestic chestnut industry in the United States, including in Florida. The new chestnut cultivars have high-quality characteristics that compete favorably with the imported nuts. However, the commercial U.S. chestnut industry is relatively new； most growers have less than 10 years of experience. Major states for chestnut production include California, Oregon, Washington, Michigan, Florida, Ohio, and Virginia. Chestnut Economics Chestnuts can be a productive and profitable orchard crop. Trees begin to bear after three to five years, and improved cultivars can, at maturity, produce from 1,000 - 1,500 pounds or more per acre every year. The nuts bring from $0.75-2.50 per pound wholesale, (depending on nut size) and $2-5.00 per pound retail, depending on the market. Marketing of domestic chestnuts has been primarily through local or direct market sales methods. Some American growers advertise fresh chestnuts via the Internet at prices of more than $10 per pound in small quantities, but this price includes FedEx or UPS shipping and handling. Local, direct-to-consumer sales may be up to $4.00 or 5.00 per pound, but such prices decrease considerably in sales to brokers, wholesalers, grocery chains, and other large markets. To move American-grown chestnuts in large quantities, prices must to be competitive with imported nuts, and quality of American production must be superior to the quality to which foreign wholes ale buyers and their American customers are accustomed. Chestnuts crops grown in the United States have the advantage of reaching American markets earlier than imported chestnuts, with better quality control, and without the costs of international shipping. However, the key to success in moving large quantities of chestnuts is through marketing, education of the consumer and distributors, and the development of relationships with knowledgeable persons in food-distribution services. Many opportunities for marketing that did not exist in the past for small growers are now available through the Internet, but targeted marketing efforts to the food industry can also be very valuable. Chestnut Species and Hybrids Four species of chestnuts and several of their hybrids are grown in the United States today. American chestnuts (Castanea dentata) have small, sweet nuts, upright growth form, and are highly susceptible to chestnut blight. The European chestnut (Catanea sativa) is also blight susceptible and can only be grown in blight-free areas. European chestnuts trees have an upright tree form, and the nuts from European chestnuts can be quite good from some cultivars. However, many of the cultivars and seedlings produce nuts that are bland or bitter in taste and difficult to peel. Chinese chestnuts (Castanea mollissima) are highly blight resistant, and some cultivars produce nuts of good size and sweet taste that are also easy to peel. Chinese chestnut trees are sometimes upright in growth form, but many are low, spreading and multiple branched at the ground. Japanese chestnuts (Castanea crenata) are small, spreading, blight-resistant trees that produce large, poor tasting nuts. Japanese chestnuts are mostly used for hybridization. Chinkapins (several species) produce small, sweet nuts (one per burr), are often of shrubby form and are not used for commercial nut production. The members of the genus Castanea are very closely related and interhybridize readily. Hybrids offer some of the best potential for promising commercial cultivars. In Europe, most chestnut breeding has been done with Japanese x European crosses. In Japan and Korea, the majority of the commercial production today is with Chinese x Japanese hybrid cultivars. In the United States, some of the recently developed American x Chinese hybrids offer the combination of characteristics that make for excellent commercial cultivars for Florida (Fig 1). Figure 1. American x Chinese hybrid chestnut tree. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Nut Quality and Grades Size A primary concern in any cultivar is the size of the nuts produced. For marketing to a fresh or pre-packaged market, large size is required (Fig 2). While the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has not adopted any standards for grades of chestnuts, the following size standards were proposed by the USDA in 2001 (Table 1). Figure 2. Customers prefer larger individual nuts. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Importers have sometimes used size standards based on the number of nuts per pound (Table 2). Nuts smaller than 40 count per pound are difficult to distribute through mass marketing systems (brokers and grocery chains) because of the American desire for larger chestnut sizes (Fig 3). Smaller chestnuts are generally less desirable in the American market and bring a lower price. If, however, the chestnuts are used for drying, pureeing, flour or candies, size is not as important. Figure 3. Various nut sizes among chestnut cultivars. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Taste Taste is also very important. Some cultivars have a higher sugar content, even raw. The carbohydrates in chestnuts turn to sugar as the nuts mature and dry. Curing is important before cooking chestnuts, to bring out the flavor of the nuts. The American chestnut is quite sweet, as are chinkapins. Some of the Chinese chestnuts and the American hybrids have very sweet nuts. Some of the European and Chinese varieties are, by comparison, not as sweet. Ease of Peeling The third nut characteristic of importance is ease of peeling the nut. The pellicle or “skin” that surrounds the kernel is bitter and must be removed before eating. In some types of chestnuts, the pellicle is ingrown into the rough surface of the kernel, which makes the nuts difficult to peel and, therefore, poor eatin g quality. Many European chestnuts have this undesirable characteristic. The French distinguish between types of chestnuts based on the ease of peeling. Marrons, a chestnut native to the Mediterranean, have smooth-surfaced kernels that are easy to peel, and the chtaignes having an ingrown pellicle. The marrons command a much higher price in the stores in France and in the United States than do the chtaignes, but both types of chestnut are shipped to the United States where they are popular among American consumers. The American and Chinese chestnuts and their hybrids more frequently have smooth kernels and are easier to peel. Ease of peeling is important in commercial processing, as well as for acceptance by the consumer； a little bit of the kernel is lost in the peeling process, and chestnuts that are easily peeled require much less time and expense to remove the pellicles. Propagation The predominant type of chestnut trees sold in the United States today is Chinese chestnut seedlings. Seedling Chinese chestnuts are generally variable in nut size, taste, tree form and productivity. The trees bear in 3-8 years, much later than grafted stock. The trees are, in some cases, more vigorous than grafted trees and more cold hardy. Most existing plantings of ches tnuts in the United States are seedlings. Wide variability in the quality of the crop reduces the marketability of chestnuts. Grafting and budding are the most common ways of propagation for clones of chestnuts. Chestnuts can sometimes be affected by root stock/scion incompatibility. Factors causing this incompatibility are both ecological and genetic. Scions grafted onto rootstock with differing isoenzymes may show poor vigor, inconsistent crops, and sometimes death of the scion above the graft. Grafts fa il more in very cold climates or after severe heat or drought stress. Location and Site Chestnuts can be grown in a wide variety of climates and environments, but the range that is suitable for growing peaches is often considered to be suitable for growing many of the chestnut cultivars. Chestnuts also grow well throughout the areas in Florida used for pecan production. The best conditions for the production of nuts include a warm and relatively long growing season and a mild winter. Irrigation is recommended for maximum nut production and is especially important in initial orchard establishment. Though chestnuts flower late, spring frosts can damage new growing shoots, and low-lying frost pockets should be avoided. Chestnuts prefer a well drained, upland sandy loam of pH 5.0-6.5. The soil should not be subject to standing water and/or periodic flooding. If mechanical harvesters are to be used, too much slope in the field can create difficulties in using the machinery, and wet soil conditions with autumn rains can inhibit easy movement through the orchard. North Florida is especially suited to growing chestnuts. Areas from Orlando north through the Florida Panhandle include chestnut plantings that have been growing for more than 40 years. Orchard Planting and Production Orchard spacing varies greatly depending upon the cultivar. However, 20X20 (108 trees/acre) is common. This spacing creates the optimum balance between close packing of the trees to increase early production of the orchard and the need to thin trees as the crowns start to touch. Chestnuts require a well managed supply of moisture and fertilizer. Drip irrigation is recommended to conserve water and effectively provide water to the trees only, rather than to weeds in non-crop areas between rows. Fertilization programs should be based on a soil test. However, a common application for chestnut trees is 1 pound of 10-10-10 or similar analysis per year of tree age up to 15 pounds per tree applied in the spring. Fertigation, or frequent feeding through the drip system, is efficient and promotes growth with less loss of nutrients from leaching. Chestnuts are heavy feeders, and nitrogen is especially important to proper rapid growth. Like many nut trees, chestnuts are slow to start and require 2-3 years to become well established. Burrs should be removed during the first three years to promote better tree growth. Most chestnut orchards are managed in a manner similar to pecans, with clean cultivation down the rows and sod cover crops between rows. Young chestnut orchards can be intercropped with row crops, such as perennial peanut, clover, hay or a small fruit crop until chestnut harvest begins in about five years after planting. Pruning Chestnuts bear on the bisexual catkins (slim, cylindrical flower clus ters), which are located near the base of the current years shoot growth. The new flushes of growth occur in areas of sunlight, at the tips of branches. Pruning should maximize the amount of sunlight available to a tree. Open-center trees (like a peach tree) allow sunlight into the vase-shaped middle, as well as the tops and sides. The European orchards and the Japanese and Korean orchards are pruned in this fashion. The central-leader tree - produced by a pruning system commonly used in apples, pecans and walnuts - creates a cone-shaped tree that has bearing surface all around the outside of the cone. This method is also acceptable for use with chestnuts. Upright-form trees respond better to mechanical shaking to remove the nuts. Very spreading trees may be more difficult to shake off the nuts because the branches tend to droop and do not translate the vibration of the shaker. Evidence also suggests a smaller tree may be more desirable than those that are too tall for ease of harvesting. Pruning, along with genetic characteristics, will be important in determining final tree shape and size. Many small-tree chestnut cultivars have produced well in Florida with very little pruning. Orchard Pest Management Chestnuts have a few serious pests. Chestnuts blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) is largely eliminated by planting blight-resistance varieties. Only blight-resistant trees should be considered for planting in Florida. Ink disease, a phytophthora root-rot fungus, has been a problem in the southeastern United States, but can be controlled by orchard floor management, keeping the soil well drained and not subject to wet conditions, which promote infection. Ink diease has been a problem in Europe and on the Pacific Coast of the United States, in areas that have long, wet winters. Deer and squirrels can be common wildlife pests in chestnuts. Deer fences may be necessary if deer are a local pest, and requent harvesting of the nuts may be required if squirrels or deer are problems. The chestnut weevil (Curculio caryatryes) lays its eggs in the developing nuts, and the mature nuts have a worm growing inside at harvest, causing the nuts to become unmarketable. The weevil spends the winter on the ground under the trees as a pupa. Few pesticides are labeled for control of chestnut weevil, so sanitation practices are critical. After the harvest is complete, collect all extra burrs, nuts, and leaf debris and destroy by burning if possible. The oriental chestnut gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus) is a serious pest that forms a gall in the growing chestnut shoots, thus stopping nut production. Biological and chemical controls are as yet ineffective for this wasp, but some Korean varieties show resistance to the wasp. It is highly recommended to not move chestnut trees or material from areas where gall wasp infestations occur. Pollination and Nut Formation Chestnuts are monoecious； both male and female flowers are borne on the current season shoots of the same tree (Fig 4). Flowers emerge on the tips of the current seasons growth, after the leaves have fully expanded, and late enough to avoid any late-spring frosts (early to mid May in Florida). Chestnuts are self sterile (will not self pollinate) and, therefore, require a pollinizer. Incomplete pollination will result in only one or two nuts forming inside the burr； the remaining nuts will not fill out. Chestnuts are primarily wind pollinated although insects may also aid in pollination. Trees should be planted at a ratio of at least 8:1 cultivar to pollinizers. Grafted trees begin to bear in two to four years, and seedlings will bear in five to seven years. If seedlings are used as pollinizers, delay in the production of the grafted trees will likely occur because pollenizer trees do not flower sufficiently in the early years (the third to fifth year after planting). Figure 4. Male and female flowers on the same tree. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Nut development and filling out occurs primarily in the last two to three weeks before ripening (Fig 5). The nut gains the majority of its weight during this time, and since the nuts are 40 percent water and 40 percent carbohydrate, a good supply of water, either from seasonal rains or irrigation, is crucial for maximizing nut production. Time from flowering to harvest varies from 110-150 days, depending on the cultivar. As the nuts ripen, the burr begins to split open, and the nuts are released from the burr or the burr falls from the tree with the nuts still inside (Fig 6). Figure 5. Burr (center), mature chestnuts (left) and immature chestnuts (right). Click thumbnail to enlarge. Figure 6. Chestnut burrs developing near harvest season. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Harvesting and Storage Harvesting of chestnuts is traditionally done with hand labor, which, in small orchards, may be more efficient than mechanical harvesting. Because chestnuts are high in carbohydrates, they decay quickly and must be harvested every two to three days to eliminate the amount of the time the nuts spend on the ground. Mechanical harvesting of chestnuts is much the same as in the pecan, almond, or walnut industry. Shakers are successful as a means of removing the burrs from the trees. The nut and burrs can be collected, either in a catch frame or in mesh nets on the ground underneath the tree, or the nuts can be picked up with various mechanical pecan harvesters or harvesters designed for other nut crops. Once collected from the orchard, the nuts and burrs are separated, and the nuts go directly into a cooler. The burrs are run through a deburring device, such as those used for removing the husks of walnuts, or a pecan cleaner. Green burrs with undeveloped nuts (still white) can be held separately until the nuts ripen in several days. Nuts are washed and then graded by size and stored in tightly woven, but breathable mesh bags at 32 degrees F and 85 percent humidity. Chestnuts will last up to six months when stored under these conditions. At warmer temperatures, the nuts will decay faster because of the higher biological activity than at lower temperatures. High humidity is required because the nuts will dehydrate and lose their quality in most coolers. A quick dip (45-60 minutes) in hot water (125o F) can kill many of the decaying organisms and the chestnut weevils larva. After the hot-water dip, the nuts are cooled in cold water and then stored at 32o F. Processing Whole chestnuts can be peeled and canned or frozen. This processing generally increases the shelf life of the product over the fresh nuts and, more importantly, lowers the amount of consumer labor and time in preparation. The value added to a peeled and packed product is substantial and may be important in increasing the market size of chestnuts, especially increasing the use of the nuts beyond the traditional chestnut season, Thanksgiving and Christmas. Prepackaging is a very important consideration in adapting chestnuts to the U.S. market. Machinery is available to mechanically peel and package chestnuts. Peeled and frozen chestnuts will retain their taste up to two years. Chestnuts can also be dried and ground into flour. In Europe and the Orient, chestnut flour has long been highly prized for its sweet taste in making breads, pastas, and pastries. Specialty chestnut products are becoming more commonly available in U.S. markets and through Internet sales. Marketing The well developed distribution system used for many nuts grown in the United States is also available for chestnuts grown in this country. Growers with large, high-quality chestnuts can compete favorably with imported chestnut crops because domestic growers can reach the U.S. market earlier and deliver a fresher product and, thus, sell at a premium price. There are many potential markets for high-quality chestnuts grown in the United States. Gourmet and health-food markets and restaurants offer outlets where consumers are typically interested in trying and learning about new food products. Ethnic French, Italian and Oriental markets already carry chestnut products and are interested to find local, high-quality sources of chestnuts. Almost all grocery chains carry imported chestnuts at Thanksgiving and Christmas. Local community farmers markets are becoming much more popular in Florida and also serve as outlets to market nuts. Internet sales can also be a successful method to sell chestnuts and chestnut products. Nutrition The chestnut is a highly nutritious food. Unlike most nuts, which are high in fat (pecans and walnuts), chestnuts have only a trace of fat and one-third the calories of other nuts, such as peanuts or cashews. Chestnuts are also the only nut with a significant amount of vitamin C and no cholesterol. The protein of chestnuts is of excellent quality and comparable in amino-acid content to that of an egg. Chestnuts are considered “a grain that grows on a tree,” being similar nutritionally to brown rice. Chestnuts are delicious and can be prepared in a variety of ways, including roasted on the fire or steamed for use in soups, stews, souffls, hors douerves, stuffings and desserts. Chestnuts may be dried and made into pasta or sweet flour for pastries and breads. Pureed or candied, chestnuts are a favorite dessert all across Europe. This diversity of uses and high nutritional quality from a perennial tree crop have made the chestnut a popular food source, including throughout history and in many different cultures around the world. More Information For additional documents and links regarding chestnut production and marketing, visit the fruits and nuts page of Floridas Small Farms Website (/crops/fruits_and_nuts/nut_crops.html). Tables Table 1. USDA standards for grades of chestnuts proposed in 2001. Size Classification Minimum Diameter (inches) Maximum Diameter (inches) Mammoth 1 3/8 No Maximum Jumbo 1 1/4 1 1/2 Giant 1 1/8 1 3/8 Large 1 1 1/4 Table 2. Examples of chestnut size standards based on number of nuts per pound. Grade Number of Nuts/Pound A 36-39 AA 27-30 AAA 22-24 AAAA 19-20 AAAAA 18 or fewer Footnotes 1. This document is HS1155, one of a series of the Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First published in EDIS July 2009. Reviewed August 2012. This is a revised copy of the original document, An Introduction to Production, Marketing, and Economics of Growing Chestnuts in the Southern United Sates, by R.D. Wallace and P.J. VanBlockland. 1989. University of Florida, Dept of Food Resource Economics. Staff report. #354. Visit the EDIS website at . 2. Robert C. Hochmuth, multi-county Extension agent, Suwannee Valley Agricultural Extension Center； Robert D. Wallace, commercial nurseryman, Chestnut Hill Nursery, Alachua, FL； Peter J. Van Blokland, professor, Food and Resource Economics, Indian River Research and Education Center, and Jeffrey G. Williamson, professor, Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida. Gainesville, FL 32611. The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function w ith non-discrimination w ith respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. For more information on obtaining other UF/IFAS Extension publications, contact your countys UF/IFAS Extension office. U.S. Department of Agriculture, UF/IFAS Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A & M University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Nick T. Place, dean for UF/IFAS Extension. 美國板栗產(chǎn)業(yè) 羅伯特 C.霍赫穆特、羅伯特華萊士、彼得 J.van Blokland 和 Jeffrey G.威廉姆森 這是原始文件的修訂副本，介紹了生產(chǎn)，銷售，和栗子生長在東南亞美國的情況，通過RD 華萊士和 PJ VanBlockland。佛羅里達(dá)大學(xué)的 1989 年，食品資源經(jīng)濟系。工作人員報告。 序言： 栗子（板栗屬）是由幾個品種的樹木在山毛櫸科（殼斗科）的表示。板栗原產(chǎn)北半球的地暖，溫帶地區(qū)。 美國是少數(shù)幾個國家在世界上能生長栗子和不具有顯著的商業(yè)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)之一。因為美國有板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)這樣一個小的（世界產(chǎn)量的不到 1）產(chǎn)業(yè)，進(jìn)口到美國的栗子的數(shù)量與每年的總價值超逾 2 千萬元。 新的栗子品種開發(fā)，先進(jìn)的傳播，文化的技術(shù)現(xiàn)在允許美國擴大在商業(yè)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)。栗子可就在佛羅里達(dá)州小農(nóng)誰正在尋找他們的業(yè)務(wù)多元化，一個可行的替代作物。 歷史： 農(nóng)作物有很多的歷史重要性，因為世界各地的食物來源如栗子。栗子是最早木本作物被馴化了，甚至在中國詩歌中提到 5000 余年前的一個。北美的歐洲殖民者發(fā)現(xiàn)的新大陸幾乎是一個堅實的板栗林。美國栗樹曾經(jīng)在東部森林中最常見的樹木中，從緬因州到喬治亞州，西至密西西比河。 這個令人驚訝的有用的樹提供防腐性木材，這是用于幾個項目，從柵欄柱到家具。板栗樹也是單一的來源，除了其美麗的堅果作物。但是從東方在 1904 年意外引入的栗疫?。ɡ跻卟【?，在不到 40 年殺害了幾乎所有的美國栗樹在美國。在美國板栗的損失被認(rèn)為是西方歷史上最偉大的植 物災(zāi)害之一。 板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)高度發(fā)達(dá)的歐洲，在世界的東方。韓國和中國是板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)達(dá)的兩個國家 ；同時這些國家產(chǎn)生超過 40的世界栗子。其他主要的板栗生產(chǎn)國包括意大利，土耳其，玻利維亞，日本，西班牙和葡萄牙。栗子對美國的主要出口國是意大利，中國和韓國。 板栗進(jìn)口到美國的 4,500 噸增加到 2003 年的 5,400 萬噸， 2004 年同比增長，表明栗子在美國的消費者的需求在不斷增長。進(jìn)口到美國的栗子每年的價值超過 2000 萬美元。 這是抗栗疫病和生產(chǎn)大，甜堅果 - - 新美國 x 中國雜交板栗品種的發(fā)展有助于使國內(nèi)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)在美國可 能的擴展，包括在佛羅里達(dá)州。新板栗品種具有毫不遜色與進(jìn)口堅果競爭的高品質(zhì)特性。然而，美國商業(yè)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)是相對較新 ；大多數(shù)種植者有不到 10 年的經(jīng)驗。為板栗生產(chǎn)大國，包括加利福尼亞州，俄勒岡州，華盛頓州，密歇根州，佛羅里達(dá)州，俄亥俄州和弗吉尼亞州。 板栗經(jīng)濟學(xué)： 栗子可以是生產(chǎn)力和盈利果園作物。樹木開始后三到五年來承擔(dān)，而改良品種可以在到期日，從 1000 - 1,500 斤以上的產(chǎn)量每畝每年。螺母從 $0.75-2.50 元一斤批發(fā)，（根據(jù)螺母的大?。┖?$2-5.00 元一斤零售，供給取決于市場。 國產(chǎn)栗子的市場一直主 要通過本地或直接的市場銷售方式。一些美國種植者通過互聯(lián)網(wǎng)在超過 10 美元每磅小批量的價格做廣告的新鮮栗子，但這個價格包括聯(lián)邦快遞或 UPS 運費和手續(xù)費。本地的，直接面向消費者的銷售可能高達(dá) $4.00 或 5.00 元一斤，但這樣的價格在銷售大幅下降到經(jīng)紀(jì)人，批發(fā)商，連鎖超市等大型市場。 美國種植栗子數(shù)量大，價格必須要與進(jìn)口堅果競爭力，和美國生產(chǎn)的質(zhì)量必須優(yōu)于質(zhì)素的外國買家，他們的美國客戶都習(xí)慣。 在美國種植栗子作物有達(dá)到美國市場早于進(jìn)口的栗子，用更好的質(zhì)量控制，并沒有國際航運的成本優(yōu)勢。然而，在移動大量栗子的成功的 關(guān)鍵是通過市場營銷，消費者和經(jīng)銷商的教育，并與有識之士在食品配送服務(wù)關(guān)系的發(fā)展。營銷是沒有過去存在的小種植者很多機會，現(xiàn)在可以通過互聯(lián)網(wǎng)，但有針對性的市場推廣力度，食品行業(yè)也可以是非常有價值的。 板栗品種的雜交： 生長在美國的四種栗子和他們幾個雜交種品種： 美國栗子（板栗齒。）有小的，甜的堅果，直立生長形式，極易受到栗疫病。 歐洲栗（ Catanea）也枯萎病易感，且只能在疫病非疫區(qū)生長。歐洲板栗樹有一個直立的樹的形式，并從歐洲栗子的堅果可以是相當(dāng)不錯的一些品種。然而，許多品種及種苗生產(chǎn)堅果的味道平淡，或 苦，難以剝離。 中國板栗（板栗）是高度抗枯萎病，有些品種產(chǎn)生良好的規(guī)模和甜蜜味道也很容易剝離的堅果。中國板栗樹，有時在生長形態(tài)挺拔，但很多是低，傳播和多支在地上。 日本栗子（板栗籽）粒小，傳播，產(chǎn)生較大的，可憐的品嘗堅果抗枯萎病樹。日本栗子大多用于雜交。 Chinkapins（數(shù)種）生產(chǎn)小型，甜堅果（每毛刺之一），通常是灌木狀的形式，不用于商業(yè)螺母生產(chǎn)。 在栗屬的成員的關(guān)系非常密切和雜交的容易。雜交提供了一些有前途的商業(yè)品種中最有潛力的。在歐洲，大部分板栗育種已經(jīng)完成，日本 x 歐洲的雜交品種。在日本和韓 國，多數(shù)商業(yè)化生產(chǎn)的今天與中國 x 日本雜交品種。 在美國，一些最近開發(fā)的美國 x 中國混合動力車提供的特點，優(yōu)秀的商業(yè)品種為佛羅里達(dá)的組合。 圖 1。 美國 x 中國雜交板栗樹。 螺母的質(zhì)量和檔次 ： 大?。?在任何品種的一個主要關(guān)注的是生產(chǎn)螺母的大小。對于營銷到一個新的或預(yù)先包裝市場中，大尺寸是必需的（圖 2）。雖然美國農(nóng)業(yè)部門（ USDA）沒有采用任何標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的栗子大小，在 2001 年提出由美國農(nóng)業(yè)部以下尺寸的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（表 1）。 圖 2。 客戶喜歡較大的個體堅果。 進(jìn)口商有時用于基于每磅堅果的數(shù)目（表 2）大小的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。堅果超過每磅 40 支小的都很難通過大規(guī)模的營銷系統(tǒng)（經(jīng)紀(jì)和食品雜貨連鎖店）來分發(fā)，因為美國的渴望更大的板栗大?。▓D 3）中。小栗子一般都是在美國市場不太理想的，并帶來了更低的價格。然而，如果該栗子用于烘干，面粉或糖果，大小并不重要。 圖 3。 各種螺母尺寸板栗品種之一。 味道： 味道也很重要。有些品種具有較高的含糖量，甚至生吃。栗子中的碳水化合物轉(zhuǎn)成糖的堅果成熟和干燥。栗子烹調(diào)前固化是很重要的，襯托出堅果的味道。美國栗樹是相當(dāng)甜美的。一些中國的栗子和美國雜 交種有非常甜美的堅果。一些歐洲和中國的品種，通過比較，而不是甜的。 易于剝離： 重要性的第三螺母的特點是容易剝離的螺母。該薄膜或“皮膚” ，圍繞內(nèi)核是苦，吃之前必須拆除。在某些類型的栗子，膠片被嵌到內(nèi)核中，這使得螺母難以剝離，因此，不良的飲食質(zhì)量的粗糙表面。許多歐洲栗子有這樣的不良特性。 在法國區(qū)分栗子的基礎(chǔ)上，容易剝離的類型之間。栗子，栗子原產(chǎn)于地中海，有表面光滑的內(nèi)核，很容易剝離，并具有向內(nèi)生長的薄膜。該種栗子以更高的價格在法國和美國的商店出售，但是這兩種類型的板栗運到美國，他們是美國消費者的青睞。 美國和中國的栗子，其雜交種往往有流暢的內(nèi)核和更容易剝離。 容易剝離是重要的商業(yè)處理，以及用于接受消費者 ；內(nèi)核一點點消失在剝離過程中，那很容易去皮栗子需要少得多的時間和費用，除去藥膜。 繁殖： 主要類型在今天的美國銷售的板栗樹是中國板栗苗。中國苗栗子一般都是可變的螺母尺寸，口味，樹形態(tài)和生產(chǎn)力。該樹結(jié)的 3-8 年，遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)晚于嫁接樹種。在某些情況下，比嫁接樹更耐寒更加旺盛。栗子在美國的大多數(shù)現(xiàn)有的種植面積是苗。在作物的質(zhì)量很大的可變性降低板栗的銷路。 嫁接和芽接繁殖是對栗子的克隆最常見的方式。 栗子有時會受到砧 木 /接穗不親。造成這種不兼容的因素是生態(tài)和遺傳。接穗嫁接到砧木具有不同的同工酶可能會顯示活力差，不一致的農(nóng)作物，甚至死亡的移植物上面的接穗。移植物在非常寒冷的氣候或嚴(yán)重發(fā)熱或干旱后失敗了。 生長環(huán)境： 栗子可以生長在各種氣候條件和環(huán)境中，但適合種植桃子的范圍通常被認(rèn)為是適于生長的許多板栗的栽培品種。栗子也遍及用于山核桃生產(chǎn)領(lǐng)域在佛羅里達(dá)州生長良好。 生產(chǎn)堅果的最佳條件包括溫暖和相對較長的生長季節(jié)和溫和的冬天。灌溉是建議最大的螺母生產(chǎn)尤其重要的果園初步建立。雖然栗子花下旬，春季霜凍可能會損壞新的成長新芽，并應(yīng) 避免低洼霜口袋。 栗子喜歡 pH值 5.0-6.5，排水良好的高地沙壤土。土壤不應(yīng)該受到積水和 /或定期泛濫。如果機械收割機的使用，在野外太多斜坡在使用機器造成困難，而且潮濕的土壤條件，秋雨可以通過果園抑制方便移動。北佛羅里達(dá)特別適合于不斷增長的栗子。從奧蘭多向北穿過佛羅里達(dá)狹長地帶的領(lǐng)域包括板栗種植已成長為超過 40 年。 果園種植和生產(chǎn)： 樹苗間距差異很大取決于品種。然而， 20*20 （ 108 株 /畝）是常見的。這個間距產(chǎn)生了樹木的緊密堆積之間的最佳平衡，以提高早期生產(chǎn)的果園和需要薄樹的作為冠開始觸摸。 栗子需要水分和肥料的管理良好的供應(yīng)。滴灌建議節(jié)約用水，有效地提供水源的樹木而已，而不是雜草在非作物區(qū)行之間。施肥方案應(yīng)根據(jù)土壤測試。然而，一個常見的應(yīng)用栗樹是 1磅 10-10-10 或每樹齡高達(dá) 15 磅每棵樹在春天應(yīng)用年類似的分析。灌溉施肥，或頻繁通過滴灌系統(tǒng)飼養(yǎng)，是有效的，與營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)的浸出損失較少促進(jìn)增長。栗子是沉重的饋線和氮是正確的快速增長尤其重要。像許多檳榔樹，栗子啟動緩慢，需要 2-3 年才能完全建立。毛刺應(yīng)在第一個三年中刪除，以更好地促進(jìn)樹木生長。 大多數(shù)板栗果園類似山核桃的方式管理，用干凈的栽培下兩行之間 的行和草皮覆蓋作物。年輕的板栗果園可間作一行作物，如花生常年，三葉草，草或小水果作物，直到板栗收獲開始在 5 年后種植。 修剪： 栗子承擔(dān)對兩性的柳絮（纖細(xì)，圓柱形的花簇） ，這是位于目前的年新梢生長的基地附近。增長的新丫發(fā)生在太陽光的地方，在樹枝的頂端。修剪應(yīng)盡量陽光提供給樹的數(shù)量。開放式中心樹（如桃樹），讓陽光照進(jìn)花瓶形的中間，以及頂部和兩側(cè)。歐洲的果園和日本和韓國的果園修剪以這種方式。 蘋果，山核桃，胡桃常用修剪系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生 - 創(chuàng)建一個錐形樹已經(jīng)支承表面都繞錐的外側(cè)。這種方法也可以接受的栗子使用。 直立的樹 木更好