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1、英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué),Introduction,語(yǔ)言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 語(yǔ)言是人類(lèi)用來(lái)交際的任意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。 語(yǔ)言學(xué)Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.,普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General lin

2、guistics.,應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)Applied Linguistics The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the tea

3、ching of foreign and second language.,識(shí)別特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 語(yǔ)言識(shí)別特征是指人類(lèi)語(yǔ)言區(qū)別與其他任何動(dòng)物的交際體系的限定性特征。,Arbitrariness任意性 ; Productivity/Creativity多產(chǎn)性/創(chuàng)造性; Duality雙重性; Displacement移位性; Cultural tra

4、nsmission文化傳遞,Design Features,(1)arbitrariness任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions shu 和Tree都能表示“樹(shù)”這一概念;同樣的聲音,各國(guó)不同的表達(dá)方式,Design

5、 Features,(2)Duality雙層結(jié)構(gòu) Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. 語(yǔ)言由聲音結(jié)構(gòu)和意義結(jié)構(gòu)組成,Design Features,(3)Productivity多產(chǎn)性 Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. 語(yǔ)言可以理解并創(chuàng)造無(wú)限數(shù)量的新句子,是由雙層結(jié)構(gòu)造成的結(jié)果,Design Features,Displacement移位性 Language can be use

6、d to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 可以表達(dá)許多不在場(chǎng)的東西,如過(guò)去的經(jīng)歷、將來(lái)可能發(fā)生的事情,或者表達(dá)根本不存在的東西等,Design Features,Cultural transmission文化傳播性 Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed th

7、at language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 語(yǔ)言需要后天在特定文化環(huán)境中掌握,Important distinctions in linguistics,規(guī)定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should s

8、ay and what should not say. 著重于語(yǔ)言中“標(biāo)準(zhǔn)Standards”認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言中存在著一種地位最高的語(yǔ)言形態(tài),如標(biāo)準(zhǔn)語(yǔ)法/語(yǔ)音等,為規(guī)定人們?nèi)绾握f(shuō)話、寫(xiě)作,描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 著重于語(yǔ)言中“事實(shí)Facts”,目的是描述人們一般是怎樣說(shuō)話、寫(xiě)作的,Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mai

9、nly spoken language date.現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)是描述性的,其研究以確實(shí)可靠的、主要以口語(yǔ)形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。,traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法是規(guī)定性的,研究高級(jí)書(shū)面語(yǔ)。,歷時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the hi

10、storical development of language over a period of time. 研究語(yǔ)言各個(gè)階段的發(fā)展變化,研究語(yǔ)言的歷史發(fā)展規(guī)律,共時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 以某個(gè)特定時(shí)期的語(yǔ)言為研究對(duì)象,如現(xiàn)代漢語(yǔ)研究、莎士比亞時(shí)代語(yǔ)言研究等,Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states

11、of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view. 現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)主要是共時(shí)性的,重點(diǎn)研究現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言。除非對(duì)語(yǔ)言的各種狀態(tài)都進(jìn)行成功的研究,否則很難從歷時(shí)性角度對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行描述。,Langue 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is u

12、sed for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.,Functions of Language語(yǔ)言的功能,傳達(dá)信息功能 Informative:最主要功能(The main function) 人際功能 Interpersonal: 人類(lèi)在社會(huì)中建立并維持各自地位的功能(establish and maintain their identity) 行事功能 performative: 現(xiàn)實(shí)應(yīng)用判刑、咒語(yǔ)、為船命名等(Jud

13、ge,naming,and curses),表情功能 Emotive: 表達(dá)強(qiáng)烈情感的語(yǔ)言,如感嘆詞/句(exclamatory expressions) 寒暄功能 Phatic: 應(yīng)酬話(phatic language),比如“吃了沒(méi)?”“天兒真好??!” 等等 元語(yǔ)言功能 Metalingual:用語(yǔ)言來(lái)談?wù)?、改變語(yǔ)言本身,如book可以指現(xiàn)實(shí)中的書(shū)也可以用“book這個(gè)詞來(lái)表達(dá)作為語(yǔ)言單位的“書(shū)”,語(yǔ)言學(xué)的分支,核心語(yǔ)言學(xué) Core linguistic: 語(yǔ)音學(xué) Phonetics :關(guān)注語(yǔ)音的產(chǎn)生、傳播和接受過(guò)程,著重考察人類(lèi)語(yǔ)言中的單音。Its main focus is on th

14、e articulation, transmission and reception of human sounds, especially isolated sounds,音位學(xué)Phonology:從功能的角度出發(fā)對(duì)出現(xiàn)在某種特定語(yǔ)言中的語(yǔ)音及其組合、分布規(guī)律進(jìn)行研究的語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective.,形態(tài)學(xué) Morphology:研究單詞的內(nèi)部構(gòu)造和構(gòu)詞規(guī)則the internal structure of words and the rul

15、es by which words are formed,句法學(xué) Syntax:研究組詞造句的規(guī)則the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.,語(yǔ)義學(xué) Semantics:對(duì)語(yǔ)言產(chǎn)生的意義的方法的系統(tǒng)研究,以研究詞義和句義為主its the systemic studies on the meaning-producing mechanism in languages, including words and sentences meaning,語(yǔ)用學(xué) Pragmatics:從語(yǔ)言同使用者之間的關(guān)系出發(fā),研究在實(shí)際交際

16、in real-time communication contexts中影響人們語(yǔ)言使用的各種因素mainly in terms of the relationship between language and language-users。,邊緣語(yǔ)言學(xué) Peripheral: psycho-linguistics (心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)) socio-linguistics (社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)) anthropological linguistics(人類(lèi)語(yǔ)言學(xué)) neurological linguistics(神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)) mathematical linguistics(數(shù)字語(yǔ)言學(xué)) computat

17、ional linguistics(計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)言學(xué)),Language and Culture,Language is the carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. 語(yǔ)言是文化的載體,文化通過(guò)語(yǔ)言的使用得到更好的體現(xiàn)。,Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis,Our language will mould our view of the world.語(yǔ)言影響我們對(duì)世界的看法的形成。 1:linguistic determinismlanguage may determi

18、ne our thinking patterns語(yǔ)言決定論,語(yǔ)言有可能決定我們的思維方式,2:linguistic relativitysimilarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.語(yǔ)言相對(duì)論,語(yǔ)言之間的相似性是相對(duì)的,結(jié)構(gòu)差異越大,人們認(rèn)識(shí)世界的方式越多樣,語(yǔ)音學(xué)Phonetics,The study of sounds, which

19、are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.(語(yǔ)音學(xué)) 語(yǔ)音學(xué)的分支 1. 發(fā)音語(yǔ)言學(xué) Articulatory phonetics:研究語(yǔ)音產(chǎn)生的方式,這是普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)主要研究的分支 2. 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Acoustic phonetics 3. 聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Auditory phonetics,語(yǔ)音學(xué)中兩個(gè)重要概念,言語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音Speech sounds: 是語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究的對(duì)象,亦可叫做音段Segment或者音素Phone; 分為兩種:輔音consonants 和元音vowels,發(fā)音器官Speech organs,肺the lun

20、gs 氣管the trachea 聲帶the Vocal Cords:位于咽喉the Larynx中 咽喉突出的部分叫喉結(jié)The Adams Apple 三個(gè)回聲腔:咽腔the Pharynx、口腔the oral cavity和鼻腔the nasal cavity,Consonants輔音,概念:發(fā)音過(guò)程中產(chǎn)生了氣流阻塞的那些音 The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonant

21、s. 分類(lèi):三類(lèi)劃分發(fā)音部位Places of articulation 、發(fā)音方式Manners of articulation和清濁特征,按照發(fā)音部位places of articulation: 唇間音bilabial:/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/ 唇齒音labiodental:/f/ /v/ 齒間音dental:/ /, 牙齦音alveolar:/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/ 齦腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar:/t/ /d/ / / 硬腭音Palatal:/j/ 軟腭音Velar: /k/ /g/ /w/ / 喉音glottal:/

22、h/,按照發(fā)音方式manners of articulation 完全阻塞輔音complete obstruction/爆破音plosives/stops: /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/ 鼻音nasals:/m/ /n/ / / 擦音fricatives:/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ / / / / h / / / / 塞擦音affricates:/ts/ /dz/ / t / / d / /tr/ /dr/, 流音liquids: /r/ /l/ 滑音/半元音glides/semivowels:/w/ /j/ 接近輔音approximants: /r/ /j/ /w

23、/ 中央流音central 邊流音lateral:/l/,特征 清濁特征Voicing 分類(lèi):濁輔音voiced consonants 清輔音voiceless consonants 體現(xiàn)形式:聲帶是否震動(dòng)in the vibration of the vocal cords E.g:/p/ 和/d/,清音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are

24、 called voiceless sounds. 濁音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.,送氣特征Aspiration articulated with a strong air stream pushing out 只有爆破音和破擦音有送氣與否的區(qū)別 不造成詞義改變,是非區(qū)別性特征 E.g:/p/ 在please中送氣,在speak中不送氣,區(qū)別性特征Distinctive Features 可以用來(lái)區(qū)分不同音位(phonetic voicing)如清濁特

25、征,但送氣特征就不是 區(qū)別性特征一般都是雙元Binary的 (+voicing/ -voicing),元音Vowels,概念:發(fā)音中沒(méi)有出現(xiàn)任何氣流阻塞的音 The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.,分類(lèi): 舌翹位置the part of the tongue that is raised、 舌高the

26、extent to which the tongue rises 嘴唇的形狀the shape of the lips,舌翹: front/i/ /e/ /a/; back/o/ /u/ 舌高: high/i/ /u/;mid/e/ /o/;low/a/ 唇形: unrounded/i/ /e/ /a/;rounded/o/ /u/,/a/: front, low, unrounded /e/:front, mid, unrounded /i/: front, high, unrounded /o/: back, mid, rounded /u/: back, high, rounded,Cl

27、assification of English vowels英語(yǔ)元音的分類(lèi),標(biāo)準(zhǔn)元音Cardinal vowels:由一組任意確定的元音組成,這些元音都是作為抽象的單位存在,為描述現(xiàn)實(shí)語(yǔ)音中的元音提供一個(gè)參考框架,由瓊斯提出。,單元音Monophthongs 雙元音Diphthongs:有兩個(gè)音組成純?cè)魀ure vowel+短促的滑音brief gliding sound,由前音滑向后音,又稱(chēng)元音過(guò)渡Vowel Glides 三元音Triphthongs,Coarticulation 協(xié)同發(fā)音,語(yǔ)音同化 Co-articulation或Assimilation: 在一個(gè)語(yǔ)音群中,一個(gè)語(yǔ)音總會(huì)

28、帶上其附近語(yǔ)音的某種性質(zhì),這個(gè)現(xiàn)象就成為語(yǔ)音同化。最明顯的就是鼻化,如can一詞中,a的音會(huì)帶上后面的鼻音n,先期協(xié)同發(fā)音Anticipatory Coarticulation The sound becomes more like the following sound.前一個(gè)音受到后一個(gè)音的影響 后滯協(xié)同發(fā)音Preservative Coarticulation The sound becomes more like the preceding sound.后一個(gè)音受到前一個(gè)音的影響,國(guó)際音標(biāo)圖IPA chart: 全稱(chēng)是International Phonetic Alphabet,由國(guó)

29、際語(yǔ)音協(xié)會(huì)IPA=International Phonetic Association在1888年首次確定,Phonetic Transcription標(biāo)音,Orthographic representation of speech sounds:Broad and narrow transcriptions(語(yǔ)音的正字法表征:寬式/窄式標(biāo)音),Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only (代表字母的符號(hào)) Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-

30、symbols together with the diacritics (變音符) E.g.: lli:f- a clear l (no diacritic) lbild-a dark l (),音位學(xué)Phonology,The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. (音系學(xué)) 廣義音位學(xué)指對(duì)自然語(yǔ)言聲音系統(tǒng)的一般性特征研究,可以包括語(yǔ)音學(xué); 狹義的音位學(xué)主要研究言語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音組合方式模式及變化,普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)取其狹義,音位學(xué)與語(yǔ)音學(xué)的區(qū)別: Phonetics 著重語(yǔ)言的

31、自然屬性physical properties,關(guān)注所有語(yǔ)言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音,是音位學(xué)研究的基礎(chǔ); Phonology著重強(qiáng)調(diào)語(yǔ)音的社會(huì)功能social functions,對(duì)象是某種語(yǔ)言中可以用來(lái)組合成詞句的那些語(yǔ)音,音素phone A phonetic unit or segment. it does not necessarily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language.,音位Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, its a collectio

32、n of distinctive phonetic features. 音位變體Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.,音位Phoneme: 在語(yǔ)言中具有區(qū)別表義單位作用的最小語(yǔ)音單位the smallest unit that is capable of distinguishing or contrasting words, E.g: pig 和big中的/p/和/b/就是獨(dú)立的

33、音位。,音位變體Allophones: 沒(méi)有區(qū)分表義單位作用的音段(segment) E.g:同樣/p/音,在speak和please中讀音卻有差別,若把兩個(gè)有差別的/p/音調(diào)換位置,并不會(huì)改變單詞意義,只是有點(diǎn)別扭。所以,這兩音就叫做/p/的音位變體。,Phoneme和Allophone的區(qū)別:音位具有區(qū)別性,是抽象、理想化的單位,具有系統(tǒng)性;音位變體都屬于同一個(gè)音位,他們共同代表或者源于音位,是音位在實(shí)際環(huán)境中的體現(xiàn)。,最小語(yǔ)音對(duì)Minimal Pairs: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one

34、 sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 兩個(gè)詞互相之間的差別只是一個(gè)音段,就是最小語(yǔ)音對(duì);可以確定某個(gè)音段是否為音位 E.g:pen 和pin就是M-p,可以確定/e/和/i/,兩種分布關(guān)系 對(duì)比性分布Contrastive Distribution 若兩個(gè)音段出現(xiàn)在同一個(gè)語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中而產(chǎn)生了兩個(gè)不同的單詞,則處于對(duì)比性分布關(guān)系。 最小語(yǔ)音對(duì)中的不同音段就是這種關(guān)系。,互補(bǔ)性分布Complementary distrib

35、ution Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 若兩個(gè)基本相似的音段絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在相同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中,則它們之間就是互補(bǔ)性分布的關(guān)系。 E.g:送氣的p(peak)絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在s之后,而不送氣的p(speak)也不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在詞首,自由變體Free variation 如果兩個(gè)音段出現(xiàn)在相同的環(huán)境中,但并未產(chǎn)生兩個(gè)不同的單詞,那么它們就是同一個(gè)音位的自由變體。 E.g:將act中失去爆破的/k/換成爆破的/k/是很常見(jiàn)的,但并不會(huì)造成單詞意義的變化。,區(qū)別性特征Distinct

36、ive Features 清濁特征、發(fā)音位置以及發(fā)音方式,超音段音位學(xué)Suprasegmental Phonology The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress重音,syllable音節(jié), intonation聲調(diào) and tone語(yǔ)調(diào).,概念:對(duì)大于音段的語(yǔ)音單位如音節(jié)、單詞和句子的語(yǔ)音特征進(jìn)行的研究。主要包括:重音Stress,音長(zhǎng)Leng

37、th,音高Pitch和此三者共同作用的結(jié)果語(yǔ)調(diào)intonation。,重音stress:分為單詞重音和句子重音 單詞重音:位置固定,可分為三級(jí)零zero重音,次secondary重音,和主要primary重音,句子重音: 結(jié)構(gòu)重音structural:句語(yǔ)句之間的對(duì)比產(chǎn)生的某一個(gè)單詞重音的變化或某一個(gè)一般不重讀的單詞的重讀,如ThirtTEEN girls and thirty boys中的TEEN重讀,強(qiáng)調(diào)重音contrastive:指純粹出于交際需要對(duì)句中的任意部分進(jìn)行強(qiáng)調(diào),句中的任意音節(jié)都可能成為重讀音節(jié),語(yǔ)法重音grammatical:約定俗成的語(yǔ)法成分功能決定的重音,如重讀實(shí)詞,輕讀

38、虛詞等,音高pitch:指某個(gè)語(yǔ)音單位(音段或者超音段)因?yàn)榘l(fā)音時(shí)聲帶震顫的快慢而導(dǎo)致的聲音高低之分。某些語(yǔ)言中,音高變化起區(qū)別性作用,如漢語(yǔ)的四聲tone,音節(jié)Syllable:大于音段但小于單詞的單位;單詞可以分為單音節(jié)詞monosyllabic word和多音節(jié)詞polysyllabic word 音節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu): 音節(jié)頭onset一般為輔音 節(jié)峰/節(jié)核Peak/nucleus:核心部分,由元音擔(dān)任,不可或缺 節(jié)尾coda:一般為輔音,輔音群Consonant cluster: 幾個(gè)輔音組合在一起成為單詞的一部分,稱(chēng)為輔音群。 一般作為音節(jié)節(jié)首的輔音群不能超過(guò)3個(gè)輔音,作為節(jié)尾的不能超過(guò)4個(gè)輔

39、音,Consonant cluster,If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/,形態(tài)學(xué)Morphology,The study of the way

40、 in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.(形態(tài)學(xué))It studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 研究單詞內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)及其構(gòu)成的規(guī)則,語(yǔ)素Morpheme:研究的basic unit,不能再進(jìn)一步分成更小的單位而不破壞或者徹底改變?cè)~匯/語(yǔ)法意義的單位,desire是a morpheme,desir+able就是two morphemes,詞素Lexemes:就是“同底數(shù)冪”的概念,是

41、一組詞的共有因子,如writer、writing、wrote等擁有的write就是詞素,必須有一群詞,自由語(yǔ)素free morpheme:可以獨(dú)立出現(xiàn)、獨(dú)立成詞的語(yǔ)素。如girl,rely等 黏著語(yǔ)素bound morpheme:必須與其它語(yǔ)素一起出現(xiàn)的語(yǔ)素,詞綴居多。如pre-,-al,-ment,dis-等,語(yǔ)素變體Allomorph:相對(duì)抽象,是語(yǔ)素的實(shí)際體現(xiàn),不改變?cè)~義,但會(huì)在形式上有所變化,similar to allophone,詞根Root:?jiǎn)卧~的基礎(chǔ),無(wú)法再分割成更小的單位。兩類(lèi):若詞根是自由語(yǔ)素,則為自由詞根(大部分都是free),否則是黏著詞根(如-pal,-ceive,-

42、tain,-vert),詞干Stem:是可以附加詞綴的語(yǔ)素或者語(yǔ)素群:friend in friends;friendship in friendships,詞干詞根,如education是詞干,詞根是educate,詞綴Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.,曲折詞綴inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the

43、 addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 派生詞綴Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.,詞語(yǔ)Word:詞的三種含義a physically definable unit, a common factor underlying a set of forms, a grammatical

44、 unit,介于詞組和語(yǔ)素之間,實(shí)詞Lexical words:傳遞實(shí)際語(yǔ)義內(nèi)容的詞,包括nouns, verbs, adj., 大部分adv. 虛詞Functional words:承擔(dān)語(yǔ)法意義、執(zhí)行句法或結(jié)構(gòu)功能的詞,包括prep. Articles冠詞,pronoun. Conj.連詞等,開(kāi)放詞open classes:可無(wú)限容納新成員的詞,如名形、部分動(dòng)詞/副詞等; 封閉詞類(lèi)closed classes:無(wú)法或很難容納新成員的詞,如介代連指情態(tài)等,詞的屈折變化Inflection:其實(shí)就是在原詞上加上屈折詞綴的語(yǔ)法關(guān)系的表現(xiàn),如數(shù),人稱(chēng),有定性,體和格,-ed,-ing,-s etc.

45、不會(huì)改變?cè)~義,也不會(huì)引起詞的語(yǔ)法類(lèi)別的改變。 Table-tables, talk-talked,復(fù)合詞Compound:有一個(gè)以上的詞匯語(yǔ)素構(gòu)成的詞,或者由兩個(gè)獨(dú)立的詞鏈接起來(lái)構(gòu)成新的形式,如icecream, sunrise,詞的派生變化Derivation:主要是詞根和詞綴之間的關(guān)系,詞綴affix既可以是前綴prefix,也可以是后綴suffix, 如conscious-unconscious, nation-national,三種語(yǔ)言: 黏著語(yǔ)言Agglutinating or Agglutinative Language:在英語(yǔ)中一般用介詞、所有格來(lái)表達(dá)的概念,在黏著語(yǔ)言中一般作為

46、語(yǔ)素出現(xiàn)在一個(gè)單詞中,曲折語(yǔ)言Inflecting Language:指那些大量使用曲折形式的語(yǔ)言 孤立語(yǔ)言Isolated Language/分析語(yǔ)言Analytical Language:一般使用獨(dú)立的詞語(yǔ)來(lái)表示單獨(dú)的概念和功能。中文為此類(lèi)的典型代表。,造詞的幾種形式,新創(chuàng)詞語(yǔ)Invention:直接來(lái)自消費(fèi)品,它們的生產(chǎn)者或商品名稱(chēng),如Coke, nylon, Kodak 混成法Blending:兩個(gè)單詞混合在一起構(gòu)成新詞,取一詞之前,另一詞之后。如smoke+fog=smog,縮寫(xiě)語(yǔ)Abbreviation/截?cái)喾–lipping:將一個(gè)單詞截?cái)喑砷L(zhǎng)度稍短的形式,如adadvertis

47、ement等 首字母縮寫(xiě)Acronym:將幾個(gè)單詞的首字母組合在一起而形成的新詞。如UN=United Nations,逆構(gòu)詞法Back-formation:從一個(gè)長(zhǎng)單詞中刪去一個(gè)看似是詞綴的部分,形成這個(gè)長(zhǎng)詞的一個(gè)變體形式,從而造詞。如edit來(lái)源于editor,televise來(lái)源于television,類(lèi)推造詞Analogical Creation:動(dòng)詞變化全部想當(dāng)然根據(jù)規(guī)則變化,如work的過(guò)去分詞想成wrought 和worked兩種形式 借詞Borrowing:直接從外語(yǔ)中借用詞語(yǔ)的造詞過(guò)程,如sofa,tofu等,詞的語(yǔ)義變化,詞義擴(kuò)大 broadening: 把意義從原來(lái)具體的

48、意思擴(kuò)充到相對(duì)概括的意思。如holiday 詞義縮小 narrowing:原來(lái)的詞義縮小或限制到一個(gè)明確的意義上。如meat(食物肉類(lèi)),詞義轉(zhuǎn)移 meaning shift:在隱喻用法中離開(kāi)了原來(lái)的語(yǔ)義領(lǐng)域。如bead(祈禱-念珠-小圓珠子) 詞性變化 class shift:詞性的變化會(huì)改變?cè)~義,從指某種具體的實(shí)體或概念變?yōu)橹改撤N方法或?qū)傩裕鏷og(豬-貪心攫取),俗詞源 folk etymology:詞或短語(yǔ)的形式由于對(duì)詞源的錯(cuò)誤而又普遍的解釋或?qū)υ~義的錯(cuò)誤理解,或者由于受到更熟悉的詞匯的影響而進(jìn)行錯(cuò)誤的類(lèi)推,導(dǎo)致了新的意義的產(chǎn)生,如sparrowgrass-asparagus(蘆筍)

49、,句法學(xué)Syntax,The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax(句法學(xué)). 研究句子結(jié)構(gòu)以及詞、詞組和短語(yǔ)構(gòu)成的句子的規(guī)則 the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.,Syntactic Relation句法關(guān)系 橫組合關(guān)系Syntagmatic relations/線形關(guān)系Linear relations:即詞序word order,指句子中單詞的鏈狀順序關(guān)系 縱聚合關(guān)系Paradigmatic re

50、lations:把句子各個(gè)位置當(dāng)成插槽Slot,則同義或相近詞都可填入此槽,這就是詞間縱聚合關(guān)系,Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussures syntactic theory. 詞的橫組合及縱聚合關(guān)系是索緒爾句法理論的重要組成部分,直接成分分析法Immediate Constituent Analysis簡(jiǎn)作IC Analysis:通過(guò)多次的二元切割將句子分割為詞組、單詞的一種句子分析手段,語(yǔ)法范疇Grammatical Categories:指代名詞、動(dòng)詞等此類(lèi)的標(biāo)志性特征,名詞:性Gender,

51、數(shù) Number,格Case 【性:陰性Feminine和陽(yáng)性Masculine以及中性Neuter;數(shù):?jiǎn)螖?shù)Singular和雙數(shù)Dual;格:代詞主格Nominative,賓格Accusative,名詞一般格General和所有格Genitive】,動(dòng)詞:時(shí)態(tài) Tense,體態(tài)Aspect,語(yǔ)態(tài)Voice,句子:the maximum free form最大的語(yǔ)法分析單位,句子關(guān)系: 一致關(guān)系A(chǔ)greement:兩個(gè)或更多單詞在某個(gè)特定環(huán)境下必須保持其某個(gè)范疇的一致,主要表現(xiàn)在主謂、修飾語(yǔ)和被修飾語(yǔ)之間。如this man/these men,支配關(guān)系Government:一個(gè)或幾個(gè)單詞因

52、受到其他相鄰詞語(yǔ)的支配而必須與或者保持某個(gè)范疇的一致,如代詞在動(dòng)詞后必須成賓格狀態(tài)beat him等,句子的擴(kuò)展Extension of sentence 三種方法:結(jié)合Conjoining,嵌入Embedding和遞歸Recursiveness,句子結(jié)構(gòu) 向心結(jié)構(gòu)Endocentric construction:具有核心的結(jié)構(gòu)體。分為從屬Subordinate(e.g. poor John)和平行Coordinate(e.g. boys and girls) 離心結(jié)構(gòu)Exocentric construction:沒(méi)有核心的結(jié)構(gòu)體,任何一個(gè)成分都無(wú)法代替他本身。e.g. on the she

53、lf,句子以上的句法Syntax beyond the sentence:主要研究段落和篇章中句與句的句法關(guān)系,主要是語(yǔ)篇語(yǔ)言學(xué)Text linguistic。,語(yǔ)法全由Chomsky提出,轉(zhuǎn)換生成語(yǔ)法:Transformational-Generative grammar簡(jiǎn)作TG Grammar:認(rèn)為所有語(yǔ)言形式都是由人腦中的一些深層結(jié)構(gòu)通過(guò)一系列轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則衍生而來(lái),普遍語(yǔ)法:Universal Grammar:一切人類(lèi)語(yǔ)言必須具備的原則、條件和規(guī)則系統(tǒng),叫做普遍語(yǔ)法或者語(yǔ)言普遍現(xiàn)象,他認(rèn)為研究的目的就是去尋找普遍語(yǔ)法。,語(yǔ)言習(xí)得機(jī)制 Language Acquisition Device簡(jiǎn)作

54、LAD:兒童天生具備學(xué)習(xí)一切語(yǔ)言的能力,從而表達(dá)無(wú)限的思想,句法結(jié)構(gòu),深層結(jié)構(gòu)Deep Structure:抽象的句法結(jié)構(gòu),位于于語(yǔ)法生成模式的最深層,句子各部分之間的結(jié)構(gòu)關(guān)系在這個(gè)層次都被清晰清楚表現(xiàn)出來(lái) 表層結(jié)構(gòu)Surface Structure:通過(guò)一系列轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則之后得到的最后結(jié)果,是說(shuō)話人實(shí)際說(shuō)出的句子。,系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法Systemic-functional Grammar:由英國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家韓禮德M.A.K. Halliday發(fā)展出的一套語(yǔ)法體系,區(qū)分轉(zhuǎn)換生成語(yǔ)法 Halliday系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法:關(guān)注語(yǔ)言和社會(huì)之間的關(guān)系;認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言是A form of doing, 研究語(yǔ)言與環(huán)境的關(guān)系;重視

55、個(gè)別語(yǔ)言及個(gè)別變體的描寫(xiě),Chomsky轉(zhuǎn)換生成語(yǔ)法:從心理學(xué)角度研究語(yǔ)言;認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言是A form of knowing,著重于語(yǔ)言使用者頭腦里的知識(shí)結(jié)構(gòu);重視發(fā)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)言的普通現(xiàn)象,語(yǔ)義學(xué)Semantics,The study of meaning in language is called semantics. (語(yǔ)義學(xué)) Some views concerning the study of meaning 關(guān)于意義研究的一些觀點(diǎn) the naming theory命名論 the conceptualist view概念論 contextualism: John Firth 語(yǔ)境論 behav

56、iorism: Bloomfield 行為主義論 based on contextualist view,the conceptualist view概念論 Thought/reference concept 思想/指稱(chēng) Symbol/Form (words) 符號(hào)/形式 Referent (real object)所指,語(yǔ)義學(xué)的七種意義Geoffrey Leech: 七種意義可以被分成三大類(lèi):概念意義Conceptual, 聯(lián)想意義Associative and 主題意義Thematic Meanings,概念意義Conceptual Meaning:是Leech理論的中心Core概念,表示

57、單詞和其所指代的事物之間的關(guān)系,類(lèi)似于“Reference”,聯(lián)想意義Associative Meaning: 五小類(lèi)內(nèi)涵Connotative意義,社會(huì)Social意義,情感Affective意義,反映Reflected意義和搭配Collocative意義,內(nèi)涵Connotative意義:指在交際中語(yǔ)言所傳達(dá)出來(lái)的意思 社會(huì)Social意義:使用語(yǔ)言時(shí)傳達(dá)出的有關(guān)社會(huì)場(chǎng)合的信息,情感Affective意義:指說(shuō)話人或作者表達(dá)出來(lái)的情感或態(tài)度 反映Reflected意義:通過(guò)聯(lián)想某個(gè)表達(dá)法的別種意義而產(chǎn)生出來(lái)的意義 搭配Collocative意義:通過(guò)聯(lián)想經(jīng)常同現(xiàn)于一個(gè)語(yǔ)境中的單詞而產(chǎn)生的意義

58、,主題意義Thematic Meanings:通過(guò)信息的組織方式而傳達(dá)的意義what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis,語(yǔ)義關(guān)系Sense Relations 三種:同義關(guān)系Synonymy,反義關(guān)系A(chǔ)ntonymy,上下義關(guān)系Hyponymy,同義詞Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are clos

59、e in meaning are called synonyms.,反義詞Antonymy Its the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.,同音(形)異義Homonymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.,同音異義Homophones It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign. 同形異義Homographs It refers to t

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