托?？谡Z(yǔ)Task-4練習(xí)題

Task4

Logicalconsequence

Agoodargumentisonewhoseconclusionsfollowfromitspremises;itsconclusionsareconsequencesofitspremises.Butinwhatsensedoconclusionsfollowfrompremises?Whatisitforaconclusiontobeaconsequenceofpremises?Thosequestions,inmanyrespects,areattheheartoflogic.Logicalconsequenceisafundamentalconceptinlogic.Itistherelationshipbetweenthepremisesandtheconclusionofavalidargument.Thatistosay,inorderforakidtocorrecthisinappropriatebehavior,theadulthastoconnectitdirectlytothepunishmentgiventothekid

Ok,wehavenowunderstoodtheconceptoflogicalconsequence.I’dliketosharewithyouanexperienceaboutitofmyown.SomeofyouprobablyknowthatItaughtkidspaintingbefore.TherewasonekidcalledMary,whowasverytalentedinpainting,perhapsthecleverestkidinmyclass.However,shehadaverybadhabit:shelikedtopaintonthedesk.Ibetyouallhavebeentoprimaryschoolandknewthatpaintingondeskswasstrictlyforbidden.SoIpunishedhertostayinsidetheroomwhiletheotherkidswereplayingoutside.Unfortunately,Marytotallyignoredmeandcarriedonwithherartworkonthedesk.Eventually,Itoldherthatifshepaintedonthedeskagain,Iwouldn’tallowhertopaintonpaperanymore,sheimmediatelyunderstoodtheconsequence.Ihopeyouallcanseetheconnectionhere.

Explainhowthelecturer’sexampledemonstratedlogicalconsequence.

2.Task4

Theeternalruleofthenature“survivalofthefittest”appliesnotonlytoanimals,butalsotoplants.Parasiticplantsarenotanexception.Theysurviveinrainforestbytwoadaptations.Thefirstadaptationisthatsomeofthemuseothertreestogetsunlight.Inordertoachievethispurpose,certainspeciesofparasiteplantclimbontotalltrees.Thesecondadaptionisthatsomeofthemhaveevolvedmanyuniqueshapesofleaves.Withthoseleaves,theplantsmayreceivenutrients,waterandevendeadinsectseasilyfromtheexternalenvironment.

Takeaparasiticplantcalledurnplantforinstance,itsmassivecanopywillblockallthesunlight,therebyabsorbingtheenergyfromthesunbyitself.Insteadofgrowingwithitsrootsontheground,itcanclimbontopofothergigantictreestotakeadvantageofthecanopypositionwhereitcanoperatethephotosynthesis.Itutilizesothertallplants'trunktosupportitselftogettothetopoftheforest.However,wheredoesit'swaterandnutritioncomefromthenonceitclimbstothatheight?Thisisthetimewhenitsuniqueshapedleavescomeintoplay.Theseleavescanoverlapwitheachothertoformaconeshapebowl,whichtheamplerainwatercanbecollectedandflowstoitswaterstoreroom.Moreover,thebodyofinsectswillalsoslipintothebottomofthewaterroom,wheretheyareresolvedintoliquidfertilizer,combinedwiththewaterflow.

HowdoestheexampleofurnplantdemonstratetheAdaptationstrategiesofparasiteplants?

3.Task4

Overconfidenceeffect

Theoverconfidenceeffectisawell-establishedbiasinwhichsomeone'ssubjectiveconfidenceintheirjudgmentsisreliablygreaterthantheirobjectiveaccuracy,especiallywhenconfidenceisrelativelyhigh.Accordingtoaformerresearch,whenpeopleare100%percentcertainoftheiranswertoaquestion,theyarewrong20%ofthetime.Individualswhoareoverly-confidenttendtohaveunreasonablyhighexpectationsforthemselves.Iftheresultturnsouttobeunsatisfactory,theoverconfidentindividualwillfeelmoreupsetthananormalperson.Overconfidentpeoplealsotendtocollectinformationthatareconsistentwithhisbeliefandneglectthosethatarenot.

Ok,so,justnowwetalkedaboutoverconfidenceeffect.Thisisacommonlyusedtheoryinourdailylife.Takemysonforexample,heoftenhadveryhighexpectationofhimself,especiallyforthecareerpath.So,whenhegraduatedfromtheuniversity,hereallywantedtoworkforanexcellentnewspaperoffice.But,youknow,thatwasaveryprestigiousone,soeveryyeartherewerehundredsofcandidateswhoappliedforit.Andifonewantedtobecomeamemberofthatorganization,hemighthaveoutstandingacademicperformanceandtheprofessor’srecommendationletter.Mysonalwaysworkedveryhardbutfinallyhestillcouldn’tgetthejob.So,hewasverydisappointedaboutthat.However,luckily,duetohiseffortandexcellentgrades,hefoundanotherfantasticjobsoonafterthat.

Explainhowtheexampleofthelecturer’ssondemonstratestheoverconfidenteffect.

4.Task4

Lateralthinking

Whilepeoplethinkaboutaproblem,differenttypesofthinkingmayleadtodistinctresults.Certainmethodofthinkingmayhelpsolveacertainproblemfasterthantheotheronedoes.Thereisonethinkingtypecalledlateralthinking.Itisamethodofsolvingproblemsbyusingyourimaginationtohelpyouthinkofsolutionsthatarenotobviousatfirst.Unlikethetraditionalwayofthinkingaboutaprobleminananalyticalmanner,namely,the“step-by-step”logic,lateralthinkingemphasizesmostlyoncreatingnewideas.

Ok,so,justnowwetalkedaboutlateralthinking,whichstandsforamethodofsolvingproblemsbyusingyourimaginationtohelpyouthinkofsolutionsthatarenotobviousatfirst.Letmegiveyouatypicalexample.Aguestofahoteloftencomplainedaboutthelongwaitingtimewhenhewaitedfortheelevator.Atfirst,thehotelmangerwantedtofindsomeonetorepairtheelevator.Butlaterthen,hefeltthatboththemaintenancefeeandthecostofpurchasinganewelevatorweretoohigh.Therefore,hetookoneoftheemployee’ssuggestions,whichwastosetupatelevisioninthelobby,justinfrontoftheentranceoftheelevator.Sowhenguestswerewaitingfortheelevator,hecouldenjoytheinterestingTVprograms,then,surly,hewon’tfeelboring.Asaresult,thecomplainingratewilldecreaseddramatically.

Explainhowtheexampleofthehotelguestdemonstratesthelateralthinking.

5.Task4

ImpactBias

Impactbias,aformofwhichisthedurabilitybias,in

\o"Affectiveforecasting"

affectiveforecasting

,isthetendencyforpeopletooverestimatethelengthortheintensityoffuturefeelingstates.

Inotherwords,peopleseemtothinkthatifdisasterstrikesitwilltakelongertorecover

\o"Emotion"

emotionally

thanitactuallydoes.Reversely,ifa

\o"Happy"

happy

eventoccurs,peopleoverestimatehowlongtheywillemotionallybenefitfromit.

Ok,everyone,let’smovetoanewconception,impactbias.Well,letmeexplainittoyou.ImpactBiasmeansbadthingsalreadyhappenedwillhavealastingimpact,andpeopleintendtopredictaworseresultofaneventbeforeithappens.

HereIwillgiveyouanexampleofmyowndaughter.Duringherlastyearofherhighschooltime,shemerelyappliedforonecollegesimplybecauseshewantedtoaccompanyherbestfriendtothatcollege.Sheeventhoughtthatherlifewouldberuinedifshecouldn’tenterthatcollege.Unfortunately,shewasfinallyrefusedbythatcollege.Shewassadatfirst,butaftergraduatingfromthathighschoolandjoinedasummervacation,sheovercamethesadnessandchangedhermind.Shestartedtothinkthatothercollegesmightnotbethatbadafterall,sosheappliedforanotheroneandwassuccessfullyenrolled.See?Theresultwasnotasbadasshethought.

Explainhowtheexampleofthehotelguestdemonstratesthelateralthinking.

6.Task4

Peerreinforcement

WhenpersonAcreatesaninappropriatebehavior,sometimesmerelywarninghimdoesnotchangemuchofthesituation.Asindicatedbypsychologists,amoreeffectivemethodistofindapersonBwhobehavesbetterthanAandpraiseBinpublic,thusattractstheattentionofAandfinallyleadstohisvoluntarychangeofinappropriatebehavior.Thisiswhatiscalledpeerreinforcement.Theuseofsituationalandinterpersonalreinforcementcanmodifyaperson’sbehaviorinamoreefficientmanner.Thistheorycanbeappliedtosituationssuchasschoolsandcorporationstoimprovestudents’oremployees’performance.

Ok,so,justnowwetalkedaboutpeerreinforcement.Weknowthatifonehasinappropriatebehavior,andyoublamehimorherseriously,actuallythatdoesn’tmakeanysense.Whereasoncontrast,ifyoupraisesomeonewhoperformsmuchbetterthanhim,thatmaydrawhisattentionandmotivatehimchangehisbehavior.Hereisanexample.AlittlegirlcalledSarahwasverynaughtyandshedidn’talwaysobeytheruleofplaying.BythatImeanshedidn’tcleanthebuildingblocksupwhenshefinishedplayingthatandevennotreturnittotheoriginalplace.Whentheteacherblamedher,shedidn’tlistentohimandcontinuedplayingwiththebuildingblocks.TheteacherfoundtherewasalittleboycalledPaulinhisclasswhoalwayscleanedtheblocksupandreturneditquickly.So,hechangedhismind.HemadeaccomplishmentonPaulinfrontofSarah.AndwhenSarahsawit,shewastouchedbywhattheteacherhaddone,soshestoppedplayingwiththebuildingblocksandcleaneditupquickly.

Explainhowtheexampleofthebuildingblocksdemonstratesthepeerreinforcement.

7.Task4

StimulusReduction

Manystudentscanbeeasilydisturbedbysomeexternalstimulussuchasthebirds’singingoutsidethewindow,cars’beepinthestreet,soccermatchontheopenlawninthecampusetc.,allthesecouldbequitedistractingtothem.Inordertohelpthemconcentrate,aneffectivemethodshouldbeadoptedbytheteacher.Tominimizethestimulus,theteachercouldclosethewindow.Thisprocessiscalledstimulusreductioninpsychology.Itisveryessentialandhelpfulnotonlyinclass,butalsoincompanies.

Well,wehavetalkedaboutstimulusreduction.Weknowthatifsomeonecan’tconcentrateonhimself,wecanhelphimtogetridoftheinterferenceandfocusmoreonhimself.Letmegiveyouanexample.WhenIwasateacherinanelementaryschool,therewasastudentinmyclasscalledSteven,whosatnearthewindow.So,whenhavingtheclass,healwayswatchedthebirdsandtreesoutsidethewindowandofcourse,hecouldn’tconcentrateonhisstudy.TheresultofthatwasStevengotabadperformanceonhisstudy.Laterafterthat,Idecidedtohelphimchangetheseat,whichwasfarawayfromthewindow.Surprisingly,soonerafterthat,Stevencouldquicklyfocusonhimselfandthenhismarksincreasedgradually.Hence,stimulusreductionisareallyusefulmethodinourdailylife.

Explainhowtheexampleofthechangingseatdemonstratesthestimulusreduction.

8.Task4

AlarmCall

Inthefieldof

\o"Animalcommunication"

animalcommunication

,manyprimatesandbirdshaveelaboratealarmsignalsforwarning

\o"Conspecificity"

conspecifics

ofapproachingpredators.Thisisanalarmcallwhichisan

\o"Antipredatoradaptation"

anti-predatoradaptation

referringtovarious

\o"Signallingtheory"

calls

emittedbysocial

\o"Animal"

animals

inresponsetodanger.Differentcallsmaybeusedfor

\o"Predator"

predators

onthegroundorfromtheair.Often,theanimalscantellwhichmemberofthegroupismakingthecall,sothattheycandisregardthoseoflittlereliability.Whilevisualsignshavebeensuggestedasalarmsignals,theyareeasiertobegainedbypredatorsandlesslikelytobereceivedby

\o"Conspecificity"

conspecifics

.

Well,wehavetalkedaboutalarmcall.Thisisaveryinterestingandwidelyusedtheoryinzoology.Itmainlyhastwofunctions,oneistogiveawarningtoitsaccompaniersandtheotheristoenjoythefoodbyitself.Let’stakemonkeyforexample.Whenamonkeyfoundaleopardaroundit,itwouldmakescratchingnoisetowarnothermonkeys,sotheycouldgetawayassoonaspossible.While,interestingly,anotherexamplewouldbethatsometimesthemonkeyalsomadethesamenoise,butactually,therewasnoleopardaround.Whenothermonkeysranawayaftertheyreceivethealarmcall,infact,theonewhichmadethescratchingnoisewassatthereandenjoyedthetastyfoodbyitself.

Explainhowtheexampleofthemonkeydemonstratesthealarmcall.

9.Task4

CultureLag

Whenanewtechnologyorinventionemerges,manypeoplecannotaccustomitandmayhavenegativeattitudetowardit.However,afteraperiodoftransition,peoplewillgraduallyacceptitandapplyitintheirdailylife.Thisiswhatwecallculturallag,whichmeansthat

\o"Culture"

culture

takestimetocatchupwithtechnologicalinnovations,andthatsocialproblemsandconflictsarecausedbythislag.Subsequently,culturallagdoesnotonlyapplytothisideaonly,butalsorelatestotheoryandexplanation.Ithelpsbyidentifyingandexplainingsocialproblemsandalsotopredictfutureproblems.

Ok,well,wejusttalkedaboutculturelag.Weknowthatwhenanewtechnologyorinventionemerges,manypeoplecannotaccustomitandmayhavenegativeattitudetowardit.However,afteraperiodoftransition,peoplewillgraduallyacceptitandapplyitintheirdailylife.Letmegiveyouanexample.Whentelephonewasinvented,onlybusinessmenusedtelephone,becausetheyknewthattheycouldgetmoreprofitsbyusingtelephone.However,generalpeoplecouldn’tacceptit,becausetheythoughtthatcomparedwithvisitingfriendspersonally,itisrudetouseatelephonetomakeaconversation.However,30yearslater,moreandmorepeoplestaredtousetelephone.Peoplechatwiththeirfriendsthroughphoneforfun.Evenifyouuseyourpersonalphonecallatnightwouldnotbeconsideredtoberudethesedays.

Explainhowtheexampleofthetelephonedemonstratestheculturelag.

10.Task4

BehaviorExposure

Concerningaboutnegativeconsequences,somekidsmightfeartodosomethingnew.Therefore,parentsarerequiredtoencouragethemtotrynewthingsgradually,thushelpthemrealizethepositiveconsequence.Bydoingthat,kidsaremuchlikelytoovercometheirfearswithnewthings.Thisphenomenoniswhatwecallbehaviorexposurewhichinvolvestheexposuretothefearedobjectorcontextwithoutanydanger.Ifakidisseverelyinvolved,thecanturntotherapisttocomfortthechildreninordertoreduce

\o"Anxiety"

anxiety

.Andnumerousstudieshavedemonstrateditseffectivenessinthetreatmentofanxietydisorders.

Ok,well,wejusttalkedaboutbehaviorexposure,nowlet’sseeanexample.I’vegotan11yearoldsoncalledTommy.OurfamilyjustmovedtoLosAngeles.AndIalwayssawTommywatchsomeneighborkidsplayedoutsidetoridebicycles.AndIcouldtellthathereallywantedtojointhembutalsofeartodoso.ThenImadeupmymindtoencouragehimstepbystep.IbroughtmysonTommytoastoretopurchasesomeicecream.AndIaskedTommytosay“hello”totheneighborkidswhentheyarepassingbyhim.ThenmysondiditaccordingtowhatItoldhim,andthelittlepalsalsosaid“hello”tohimkindly.Onthewayback,IalsorecommendedTommytotalkmorewiththeneighborkids.Aftertheyreturnedhome,Tommyaskedifhecouldgoouttoplaywiththemlater.Ofcourse,hegotapositiveanswer.Acoupleofdaysafterthat,Iheardthatmysonandtheneighborkidsbecameverygoodfriends.

Explainhowtheexampleofchildrenmakefriendsdemonstratesthebehaviorexposure.

11.Task4

ExperimentalArchaeology

Archaeologiststravelaroundtheworldtofindalltheancientcrafts,butwhatwilltheydoiftheytrytoresearchoneswhichcanonlybefoundonbooks?Experimentalarchaeologyisanewwaywhichemploysanumberofdifferentmethods,techniques,analyses,andapproachesinordertogenerateandtesthypotheses,baseduponarchaeologicalsourcematerial,likeancient

\o"Structures"

structures

or

\o"Artifact(archaeology)"

artifacts

.Oneofthemainformsofexperimentalarchaeologyisthecreationofcopiesofhistoricalstructuresusingonlyhistoricallyaccuratetechnologies.Thisissometimesknownasreconstructionarchaeology.However,theproductofexperimentalarchaeologyisdata,nottheconstructeditemitself.

Ok,well,wejusttalkedabouttheconceptofexperimentalarchaeology,whichmeansthatinordertodotheresearch,archaeologistswouldusethesimilarmaterialtocopyanancientproductstoengageinarchaeologicalstudies.Letmegiveyouatypicalcorrespondingexample.Inordertomakesurewhetheranancientnationgroupcouldgofrommainlandtoocean,anarchaeologisthadaverylongjourneytoacertainsmallislandandsettleddownthereforacoupleofdays.Hemadeacraftbyhimselfusingthewoodandropethereofthatage.Finally,throughtheexperiment,hefoundthathecouldgofromoceantoislandbyusingthecrafthemade.

Explainhowtheexampleinthelecturedemonstratestheexperimentalarchaeology.

12.Task4

SocialSkillTraining

Inourdailylife,itiscommontomeetpeoplewithgreatachievementsbutlowEQ.Inotherword,peopleofthiskindlacksocialskills.Butthroughappropriatetrainings,whichiscalledSocialSkillTraining,theycanimproveconsiderably.Socialskilltrainingistogivepeopleany

\o"Skill"

skill

facilitating

\o"Interpersonalrelationship"

interaction

and

\o"SocialCommunication"

communication

withothers.

\o"Socialrule"

Socialrules

and

\o"Interpersonalrelationship"

relations

arecreated,communicated,andchangedin

\o"Verbal"

verbal

andnonverbalways.Theprocessoflearningsuchskillsiscalled

\o"Socialization"

socialization

.Suchatrainingtypecanbeappliedtopeopleofdifferentagerange.Ifakidisfoundtobetroubledbysocialskills,parentsshouldkeeptrainingchildrensothattheycanrepeatsocialskillsbythemselves.

Ok,well,wejusttalkedaboutsocialskilltraining,whichmeansthatparentsshouldtrainchildrensothattheycanfollowandrepeatsocialskillsbythemselves.Hereisatypicalexampleaboutmyself.Iusedtoteachchildrenhowtodrawpictures.TherewasalittlegirlcalledMarywholikedtopaint.Butwhensheusedupherredcrayon,shesawthatPaulhasgotoneandsoshegrabitfromPaulimmediately.IsawthatandsoIdecidedtotellherwhatwasthemostappropriatewaytodoit.Isaidtoherthatifshewantedtoborrowsomethingfromsomebody,sheshouldaskpolitely,“CouldIborrowtheredcrayon?”Thegirlwasreallyaquicklearner,andtherefore,everysingletimewhenshewasaskingforsomething,shewouldaskothersverypolitely.

Explainhowtheexampleinthelecturedemonstratesthesocialskilltraining.

13.Task4

RootCommunication

Indesert,plantsrootsystemmaintainsacertaindistancewitheachothers’.Togetherwithaspecialcommunication,aplantthuscansurvivebypreventingvariousplantsfromcompetingforwater,thusreasonablyusethelimitedwaterresourceinthedryarea.Thecommunicationiscalledrootcommunication.Amongplants,communicationisobservedwithintheplantorganism,especiallyinthe

\o"Rhizosphere"

rootzone

.

\o"Plantroot"

Plantroots

communicateinparallelwith

\o"Rhizome"

rhizome

\o"Bacteria"

bacteria

,with

\o"Fungi"

fungi

andwithinsectsinthe

\o"Soil"

soil

.Thisexplainswhyplantsindesertcansurviveanditmayresultfromevolution.

Ok,wehavealllearnedthatthefunctionofrootcommunicationsystemistokeepplantsfromfightingforwater.Nowlet’stakealookathowrootcommunicationworks.Thereisadesertplantcalledcereus,whichisakindofcactus.Thewayitsrootsgrowisthebestexampleofthiskind.Cereusstaysfarawayfromotherplants.Whentherootsofonecereusgrowtooclosetoanother,therootsystemofthe“invaded”onewillreleaseachemicaltowarnanothercereus:“thisismyspaceandmywater”.Thustherootsofthe“invader”willstopgrowingorgrowtoanotherdirection.Inthisway,cereusesareensuredsufficientwaterandnutrientfromtheground.

Explainhowthelecturer’sexampledemonstratedrootcommunicationsystem.

14.Task4

Exadaptation

Forallcreatures,atraitcanevolvebecauseitservedoneparticularfunction,butsubsequentlyitmaycometoserveanother.Suchanmechanismisexaptation,whichreferstoshiftsinthefunctionofatraitduringevolution.Exaptationsarecommoninbothanatomyandbehavior.Interestinexaptationrelatestoboththeprocessandproductofevolution:theprocessthatcreatescomplextraitsandtheproductthatmaybeimperfectlydesigned.Thatistosay,anewparticularfunctioncouldbedevelopedbasedonanexistingfunctionduringrevolution.

Ok,so,wetalkedaboutExadaptationinprevioussection.Someanimalshavedevelopedanewfunctiontoadaptthemselvestodifferentsituationstheyhaveduringtheprocessofevolution.Iknowit’shardtograspthemeaningofthisconcept.Letmegiveyouonespecificexample.

HaveyouheardofakindofAfricanbirdwhichisverylargeandtall?Theycanwelladaptthemselvestothenewlivingenvironment.Theywalkinswampsorpondsandswallowwaterandeatfishduringdaytime.Theycan’tseethefishbecauseofthereflectionofsunshine.Theyraisetheirwingswhicharenormallyusedforflyingabovetheirheadsasumbrellatoblockthesunshineandcreateashade.Thereforetheycanseethefish,andcanfeedthemselvesandsurvive.

ExplainhowtheexampleoftheAfricanbirddemonstratestheexadaptation.

15 Task4

Exploitation

Differentkindsofspeciesestablishaspecialrelationshipoftakingadvantageofeachother.Andinfact,thisrelationshiphastwodifferenttypes.Thefirstoneisbuiltonmutualbenefit.Bothsidescangetwanttheywantfromit.Butthesecondrelationshipisnotthatfair.Onlyonesidemayhavetheirneedssatisfiedwhileanothergetnothing.Thisrelationshipplaysanimportantroleamongspecies.

Right,sowe’vediscussedaboutwhatisexploitationandthetwoformsofexploitation.Letmegiveyoutwoexamplesheretobetterunderstandthisconcept.

Agoodexampleistherelationshipbetweenthebeesandtheflowers.Thebeesflyfromflowertoflower.Theysuckandgatherthenectarasfood.Thefirstsituationisthatwhentheyfeedthemselvesbygatheringthenectarfromthisflowertothatone,theyarealsohelpingtheflowerstotransportpollen.Inthisway,thebeesandflowersbothgetbenefits.

However,thereisanotherkindofflowerwhichhasverybrightcolor.Thiskindofflowercanattractthebeestogathernectarfromthem,whileinfacttheydon’thaveanynectar.Sothebeeswon’tgetanynectar,orinanotherword,theirfoodfromthiskindofflower,buttheystillhelptheflowertotransportpollen.

Explainhowtheexamplesofthebeesandflowersdemonstratetheexploitation.

16 Task4

Falsesignaling

Afalsesignalisamisleadingsignalgivenbypredatorstoattractpreys,whichisusuallypositiveonthesurface,butinfactlethalforpreys.Thesignalsmimickedbypredatorscouldbesounds,chemicalsignalsetc.Throughyearsofevolution,differentspeciesofanimalshavelearnedthecommunicationsystemamounteachother,that’swhycertainspidersareabletoemanatethesignalsofmothssoastopreythem.Buteventually,naturalselectionwillbemoreinclinedtothosewhocanjudgethereliabilityofthesignalsreceivedandneglectthefalseones.

Ok,guys,let’smoveon.Inthepreviouspartwetalkedabouttheconceptoffalsesignalinganddifferenttypesoffalsesignaling.Nowletmegiveyouoneexampletoexplainmoreaboutwhatisfalsesignalingexactly.

Let’stakemothasanexample.Ifafemalemothwantstogiveoffspring,itwillreleaseacertainchemicaltocoveritsbodyinthematingperiod.Whenthemalemothreceivessuchkindofscent,itknowsthatthefemalemothisreadytomate,andwillbeattractedandwillfollowthewaytothefemalemoth.However,thespider,themoth’spredator,canalsoproducethesamechemicalsignaltoattractthemalemoth.Intheend,themalemothswillbeattractedbythesamescentbuttrappedinthenetofspider,andtheneatenbythespider.

Explainhowtheexampleofthemothandthespiderdemonstratesthefalsesignaling.

17 Task4

Swarmintelligent

Swarmintelligencedescribesthecollectivebehaviorofdecentralized,self-organizedsystems,naturalorartificial.SIsystemsaretypicallymadeupofapopulationofsimpleagentsorboidsinteractinglocallywithoneanotherandwiththeirenvironment.Theagentsfollowverysimplerules,andalthoughthereisnocentralizedcontrolstructuredictatinghowindividualagentsshouldbehave,local,andtoacertaindegreerandom,interactionsbetweensuchagentsleadtotheemergenceof"intelligent"globalbehavior,unknowntotheindividualagents.NaturalexamplesofSIincludeantcolonies,birdflocking,animalherding,bacterialgrowth,andfishschooling.

Well,ok,we’vetalkedabouttheswarmintelligence.Let’slookatoneexampletobetterunderstandthisnewterm.

Theantsareagoodexampleinthiscase.Whentheyarehungry,theyfindthefoodsourcetogether.Theycanevengothroughanopenspacebetweenbranchestogetfoodsometimes.Whenthefirstantcatchesthebranchandmakesitsbodyforward,thesecondwillholdthebodyofthefirstoneandmoveforwarditsbody.Onebyone,inthisway,anantbridgewasformedbyalotofants.Andtherestantscanclimbacrosstheantbridgetogetthefood.Theycanworkinateamsowell,andwecallthisabilityofgroupbehaviortheswarmintelligence.

Explainhowtheexampleoftheantsdemonstratestheswarmintelligence.

18 Task4

Emotiondisplayrule

Expressionsofemotionsvarytoagreatdegreeandholdsignificantmeaningwithgreatvalueofdeterminingonesculturalandsocialidentity.Emotiondisplayruleistheexpressionofemotiondependingonthesocietyinwhichwearelivingin.Researchhasshownthatemotionscanbeaffectedbydisplayruleswithoutensuingafeeling.Manydifferentculturesnecessitatethatparticularemotionsshouldbemaskedandthatotheremotionsshouldbeexpresseddrastically.Emotionsareviewedas“bidirectionalprocessesofestablishing,maintaining,ordisruptingsignificantrelationshipsbetweenanorganismandtheenvironment.

Ok,sofarwe’vetalkedaboutwhatistheemotiondisplayrule.I’dliketoshareanexampleofdaughterwithyoutoelaborateonthistopic.

Mydaughteris4-yearoldnow.Somethinginterestinghappenedwhenshehadthebirthdaypartylastyear.Priortotheparty,mywifeandItoldherthatsheshouldhidethe