國(guó)際勞工組織（ILO）：工業(yè)共生網(wǎng)絡(luò)對(duì)南非非正式部門就業(yè)的影響

International

Labour

organization

ILOCountrystudy

February/2024

Theemploymenteffectsof

industrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformalsector

Authors/KieraCrowePetterssonandRiaanRossouwa

Theemploymenteffectsof

industrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformalsector

Authors/KieraCrowePetterssonandRiaanRossouwa

2ILOCountrystudy-SouhtAfrica

?InternationalLabourOrganization2024

Firstpublished2024

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TheemploymenteffectsofindustrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformalsector3

Foreword

Theworldofworkiscurrentlyexperiencingmajortransformationsrelatedtotechnology,innovation,de-mography,organizationofworkandproduction,andenvironmentalprotection,allofwhichareredefiningtheroleofworkinsociety.Accordingly,theILOResearchDepartmentdeemsitessentialtoexamineandanalysethesechangesatthegloballevel,andinparticulartheireffectsonemployment.

Overthepastfewyears,productionandtechnologicalinnovationhaveplayedapivotalroleinthegrowthof“green”industriesandhavecontributedtotheadvancementoftheUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoalsbypromotingthecirculareconomy.Onemanifestationofthecirculareconomyis“industrialsymbio-sis”,whichreferstothecomingtogetheroftraditionallyseparateentitiesinacollectiveapproachinordertoexploitandmaximizethecompetitiveadvantagearisingfromthephysicalexchangeofmaterials,energy,waterandby-productsinproductionprocesses.

Theeconomicandenvironmentalimpactsofindustrialsymbiosisnetworkshavebeenthoroughlyexamined,whereastheireffectsonemploymenthavereceivedratherlessattention.Theresearchpresentedinthisreportoffersaninnovativeapproach:itisoneoftheveryfirststudiestoanalysetherelationshipbetweenemploymentandindustrialsymbiosisinAfrica.Itsfindingsarethereforelikelytobeofinterestnotonlytoresearchersdealingwiththeimplicationsofajusttransitionandgreenjobsatthegloballevel,butalsotoworkers’andemployers’organizationsandtoleadersandpolicymakerswhoareresponsibleforthedesignofnationalpoliciesonemploymentandenvironmentalprotection.

ThepresentstudyonSouthAfricawaspreparedunderthetechnicaldirectionofMariaSabrinaDeGobbioftheILOResearchDepartmentinGeneva,incollaborationwiththeILODecentWorkTeamforEasternandSouthernAfricaandCountryOfficeforSouthAfrica,Botswana,LesothoandEswatini(hereafter“ILOPretoriaOffice”).ThisreportispartofabroaderresearchprojectontheemploymentimpactsofindustrialsymbiosisnetworksinAfricaandLatinAmerica.

WeextendourdeepappreciationtotheformerDirectoroftheILOPretoriaOffice,JoniMusabayana,forthelogisticalassistanceprovided.Thisstudycouldnothavebeencompletedwithouttheinvaluabletech-nicalsupportfromseveralcolleaguesattheILOheadquartersinGeneva:MetteGrangaardLund,JuniorProfessionalOfficeronGreenJobs;ChristophErnst,TeamLeadforInvestments,SectoralStrategiesandTransitions;LukeCarroll,JuniorTechnicalOfficerontheCircularEconomy;andTahminaMahmud,JuniorProgrammeTechnicalOfficer.JoaquínEtorenaHormaeche,ILONationalCoordinatorfortheUnitedNationsPartnershipforActiononGreenEconomy(PAGE)inArgentinaalsoprovidedveryusefulfeedback.

Lastbutnotleast,appreciationisduetotheexternalcollaborators,KieraCrowePetterssonandRiaanRossouw,withoutwhomthepreparationofthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible.

RichardSamans

DirectorILOResearchDepartment

4ILOCountrystudy-SouhtAfrica

Contents

Executivesummary

6

Definitionofterms

8

Listofabbreviations

9

1.Introduction

10

2.Literaturereview

11

2.1.SocialandeconomicimpactofindustrialsymbiosisinSouthAfrica

12

2.2.PolicyandregulatoryframeworkinSouthAfrica

12

2.3.Challengesandconstraints 13

2.4.Nexusbetweenenvironmentalsustainability,economicresilienceandemploymentgeneration

14

2.5.Broadoverviewofexistingindustrialsymbiosisnetworks 14

3.OverviewofindustrialsymbiosisintheSouthAfricantextileandconstruction

sectors

17

3.1.Descriptionofthesymbiosisnetworksineachsector 17

3.2.Insightsfromsurveyresponses 18

4.Methodology

4.1.Researchdesign

4.2.Datacollection

4.3.Surveysforthecasestudies

4.4.Assessingtheimpact

4.4.1.Quantitativeimpact

4.4.2.Qualitativeimpact

4.4.3.Limitations

18

18

19

20

20

20

21

22

5.Resultsanddiscussion 23

5.1.Textilesector 23

5.1.1.Briefcharacterizationofthesector 23

5.1.2.Descriptionoftheindustrialsymbiosisnetwork 25

5.2.Constructionsector 32

5.2.1.Briefcharacterizationofthesector 32

5.2.2.Descriptionoftheindustrialsymbiosisnetwork 34

5.2.3.Quantitativeimpact 36

5.2.4.Directeffect 37

5.2.5.Indirecteffect 37

5.2.6.Inducedeffect 38

5.2.7.Qualitativeimpact 39

5.2.8.Compositioneffect 40

TheemploymenteffectsofindustrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformalsector5

6.Conclusionsandrecommendations41

References43

6ILOCountrystudy-SouhtAfrica

Executivesummary

AdeepdiveintoindustrialsymbiosiswithinSouthAfrica’sinformaleconomy,particularlyintheprovincesofGautengandtheWesternCape,unveilsacomplexinterplaybetweenemploymentdynamics,formalizationandsustainability.Thisstudyfocusesspecificallyonvaluechainsinthetextileandconstructionindustries,withprimaryandsecondarydatasourcedataregionallevelfromGautengandtheWesternCapecoveringthedimensionsofrace,skilllevelandgender.

Analysisofthisprimaryandsecondarydata,conductedtodeterminethesubstitutioneffectalongwithdi-rect,indirectandinducedemploymenteffects,revealsineachcaseapositiveimpactofindustrialsymbiosisonjobcreationinthetextileandconstructionsectors.Inthetextilesector,thesymbiosisnetworkreplaced110individuals,resultinginanemploymentbaseof2,851workers.Thesubstitutioneffectherecontributedtothecreationof605directjobs,whiletheactivityeffectfurtherexpandedtheworkforcebyanadditional107positions.Allinall,thistranslatesintoasubstantial25percentincreaseintotalemploymentbetween2018and2022.Inthetextilesector,thesubstitutioneffectistheprimarydriverofthepositiveimpactofindustrialsymbiosisonemployment,astheprocessofutilizingtextilewastecreatesasurgeindemandforlabour,goodsandservices.

Thepositiveimpactofindustrialsymbiosisisevenmorepronouncedintheconstructionsector.With26individualsreplaced,thebasescenarioyieldedanemploymentbaseof2,071workers.Thesubstitutioneffecthereresultedinthecreationof514directjobs,whiletheactivityeffectcontributedanadditional57positions.Thistranslatesintoanimpressive28percentincreaseintotalemploymentbetween2018and2022.Intheconstructionsector,theactivityeffectplaysagreaterroleindrivingpositiveimpacts.Thisisduetothenatureoftheconstructionindustry,whereactivitiesrelatedtobuildingandinfrastructuredevel-opmentinherentlyleadtoincreasedeconomicactivity,owingtotheneedforskilledlabour,materialsandservices.Nevertheless,thesubstitutioneffectalsoplaysasignificantroleinthissector,contributingtothepositiveimpactsonemploymentandeconomicactivity.Thiscanbeascribedtotheprocessesinvolvedinrepurposingconstructionwaste,whichcreatesadditionaldemandforlabour,goodsandservices,ultimatelyleadingtoapositiverippleeffectthroughouttheeconomy.

Around15percentoftheworkforceinthetextilesectorand37percentintheconstructionsectorareininformalemployment.Whereasthelevelofemployment(bothformalandinformal)intextileshasbeendecreasingoverthepastfewyears,theconstructionsectorremainsacornerstoneoftheSouthAfricaneconomyandexertsconsiderableinfluenceoverbothemploymentandeconomicoutput.In2022,thesectorexhibitedapromisingincreaseinitsemployment-to-outputratio,signallingapotentialgrowthtrajectory.Inbothsectors,industrialsymbiosisnetworksleveragetheexistingwastestreamstounlockeconomicpotential.Byreusingandrepurposingwastematerials,thesenetworksaddressenvironmentalconcernsandstimulateeconomicgrowth.Thisdualbenefitofreducingwasteanddrivingeconomicactivityexemplifiestheabilityofindustrialsymbiosistofostersustainableandresilientindustries.

Reflectingashifttowardsformalization,organizationslikeTakingCareofBusinessarecomingtoplayanintegralroleinthebalanceofformalandinformalwork.Thisorganization,whichisactiveinthetextilesector,iscreatinganenablingenvironmentfortraditionallyinformalworkersandentrepreneurstogrowtheirbusinesses.Atthesametime,itishelpingtodevelopamoresystematizedemploymentinfrastructure.Primarydatafromworkersurveysindicatesahighlevelofcontentmentamongworkers,whichcanbeexplainedbygreateroccupationalstability,opportunitiesforskillsacquisitionandimprovedremuneration.Nonetheless,manyworkersareconcernedaboutincomeinstabilityandtheever-risingcostofliving.

Theinformalconstructionsectorpresentsamoreheterogeneouspicture.Intheirresponsestothesurvey,informalworkersinthatsectorsharedaspirationsrangingfromtheacquisitionoftangibleassetstotheadoptionofmeasuresforaddressingoccupationalhazards.Arecurrentthemewasthedesireforopera-tionalstabilityandcareergrowth.

TheemploymenteffectsofindustrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformalsector7

Acomparativeanalysisoftheprimarydatacollectedforthetextileandconstructionsectorsprovidesinsightsintotheimpactofindustrialsymbiosisonemploymentdynamics.Thetextilesector,forexample,hasahighleveloffemaleparticipation,withwomenaccountingfor87percentoftheworkforce.Furthermore,theconsiderablerepresentationofindividualswithoutasecondaryeducation,whomakeup21percentoftheworkforce,isinlinewitheffortstopromotebroad-basedinclusivity.Instarkcontrast,theconstructionsectorischaracterizedbyamodestleveloffemalerepresentation,withwomenaccountingforjust31percentoftheworkforce,andbytheabsenceofindividualswithoutasecondaryeducation.Thishighlightstheneedforasector-specificapproachtoformalizationinitiatives.

ExaminationoftheregionalemploymentdynamicswithinGautengandtheWesternCapeturnsupaddi-tionallayersofcomplexity.Inparticular,womenaccountfor47percentoftheunemployedinGautengandfor49percentintheWesternCape.Moreover,inbothGautengandtheWesternCape,9percentofunemployedwomenlackasecondaryeducation.

SouthAfrica’sadoptionofindustrialsymbiosisintheinformaleconomyisaprocessaccompaniedbydi-versechallenges,opportunitiesandaspirations.Thetextileindustryexemplifiesthepotentialofsymbiosistopromoteinclusivity,employmentgrowthandformalization,whiletheconstructionsectorservesasareminderofpersistingdisparitiesandchallenges.Theinsightspresentedherecanhelppolicymakerstonavigatethisterrain.Inparticular,itisclearthatfosteringinclusivity,prioritizingsafetyandrecognizingpossiblelimitstoformalizationarekey.Theoverarchinggoalshouldbetocreateastructured,inclusiveanddynamicemploymentlandscapethatallowsthepowerofindustrialsymbiosistobefullyharnessed.

。ILOCountrystudy-SouhtAfrica

Definitionofterms

Term

Definition

Decentwork

TheILOdefinesdecentworkas“productiveworkforwomenandmeninconditionsoffreedom,equity,securityandhumandignity”.

Ingeneral,workisconsideredasdecentwhen:

?itpaysafairincome;

?itguaranteesasecureformofemploymentandsafeworkingconditions;

?itensuresequalopportunitiesandtreatmentforall;

?itincludessocialprotectionforworkersandtheirfamilies;

?itoffersprospectsforpersonaldevelopmentandencouragessocialintegration;

?workersarefreetoexpresstheirconcernsandtoorganize.

Employment

Totalemploymentcomprisesbothformalandinformalemployment.Theemployedpopulationisdefinedasthenumberofpeopleagedbetween15and65yearscurrentlyworking.Workisdefinedasanyactivity

carriedoutbytherespondentforpay,profitorhouseholdgainduringthereferenceweek(where“householdgain”includesunpaidfamilymembershelpingoutinafamilybusiness).

Employment

multipliers

Theconceptofanemploymentmultiplierisusedinmultiplieranalysis.Itreferstotheratioofthechangeintotalemploymentofworkersinallsectorsofaneconomytothechangeinemploymentofworkersdirectlyengagedinaparticularsector(Fjeldsted1990).

Exports

ExportsofgoodsandservicesfromSouthAfricatotherestoftheworld.

Formallabour

Alloccupationsintheformalsector,includinghigh-skilled,skilledandsemiskilledlabour.

Gross

domestic

productat

marketprices

Thetotalmonetaryormarketvalueofallthefinishedgoodsandservicesproducedwithinacountry’s

bordersinaspecificperiod.Asabroadmeasureofoveralldomesticproduction,itservesasacomprehensive“scorecard”ofacountry’seconomichealth.Usingtheincomeapproach,itmaybedefinedas“thesumofallincomesearnedintheprocessofproducinggoodsandservices(paymentofsalaries,grossoperatingmarginandmixedincome)plustaxesonproductionandimportsandminussubsidies”(France,INSEE2021).

Grossvalue

addedatbasicprices

Grossvalueadded(GVA)measuresthevalueofgoodsandservicesproducedinanarea,industryorsectorofaneconomy.GVAatbasicpriceshasinmanycasesreplacedgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)atfactorcostasanindicatorofoutput.Ifthevalueaddedoftheagriculture,industryandservicessectorsiscalculatedatpurchaservalues,GVAatbasicpricesisderivedbysubtractingnetproducttaxesfromGDP.(WorldBank,n.d.)

Industrial

symbiosis

Asystemofsymbioticexchangesofproductionwastes,by-productsandutilities,togetherwithotherformsofcollaboration,amongco-locatedtraditionallyseparateindustrialentities.

Informaljobs/labour

Informalemploymentreferstopeopleinprecariousemploymentsituations,irrespectiveofwhetherthe

entityforwhichtheyworkisintheformalorinformalsector.Informalemployment,therefore,comprisesallworkersintheinformalsector,employeesintheformalsectorandpeopleworkinginprivatehouseholdswhoarenotentitledto,orwhodonotreceive,basicbenefitssuchasapensionorhealthinsurancecontributionsfromtheiremployer,andwhodonothaveawrittencontractofemployment.Thedatausedformodellingiscollectedbypublicentities,anditoftenfailstocapturegroupssuchaswastepickersintheinformalsector.

(StatisticsSouthAfrica2010)

Informal

sector

Theinformalsectorconsistsof:

?employeesworkinginestablishmentsthatemployfewerthanfiveemployeesanddonotdeductincometaxfromtheirsalaryorwage;and

?employers,own-accountworkersandpeoplehelpingunpaidinahouseholdbusinesswhoarenotregisteredforeitherincometaxorvalue-addedtax.

Input–outputanalysis

Input–outputanalysisisaformofmacroeconomicanalysisbasedontheinterdependenciesbetweendifferenteconomicsectorsorindustries.Thismethodiscommonlyusedforestimatingtheimpactsofpositiveor

negativeeconomicshocksandanalysingtherippleeffectofthesethroughoutaneconomy.

TheemploymenteffectsofindustrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformalsector9

Listofabbreviations

GDP

grossdomesticproduct

GISP

GautengIndustrialSymbiosisProgramme

SALDRU

SouthernAfricaLabourandDevelopmentResearchUnit

TAB

TheApplianceBank

TCB

TakingCareofBusiness

WISP

WesternCapeIndustrialSymbiosisProgramme

10ILOCountrystudy-SouhtAfrica

1.Introduction

Thisreportdealswiththeintricatedynamicsofemploymenteffectswithinindustrialsymbiosisnetworks,specificallyfocusingontheinformalsectorintheSouthAfricanprovincesofGautengandtheWesternCape.Rootedintheprinciplesofthecirculareconomy,industrialsymbiosisfosterscollaborationamongtraditionallydistinctindustriesandpresentsasignificantopportunityforeconomicgrowthindevelopingcountrieslikeSouthAfrica.Thecirculareconomy,whichischaracterizedbytherecycling,repairandreuseofproductsandmaterials,hasgainedprominenceindevelopingcountriesinrecentyears(Lahmeetal.2020).Centraltothisparadigmisindustrialsymbiosis,acollaborativeapproachthatpromotestheexchangeofmaterials,energy,waterandby-productsamongindustries(Chertow2000).Whiletheenvironmentalandeconomicimpactsofindustrialsymbiosisarewelldocumented,thesocialdimensions,particularlyitseffectsonemploymentandjobquality,remainunder-explored(Nevesetal.2020).ThepresentstudyaddressesthisgapbyexaminingtheemploymentdynamicsofindustrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformaleconomy.

Theinitialscopingforthereportwasframedbyaseriesofcriticalquestions:

1.Whatarethenuancedemploymenteffects,bothquantitativeandqualitative,ofindustrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformaleconomy,withaccounttakenofthechallengesinachievingdecentwork?

2.Howdothesenetworkspositivelyinfluenceinformaljobsandenterprises,andwhatinsightscanbegainedfromtheseeffects?

3.Howdolargeformalenterprisesinteractwithsmallerinformalfirmswithinthesenetworks,andwhataretheunintendedconsequences,ifany?

4.Whatcriticalsuccessfactorsdrivepositiveemploymentoutcomesinindustrialsymbiosis,especiallyintermsofformalizingjobsandempoweringwomen?

5.Whatbarriersimpedetherealizationofpositiveemploymentresults,particularlyasregardsformalizinginformaljobs?

6.Whatrecommendationscantheprivatesectorandnationalandlocalgovernmentsadopttofosterjobcreation,theformalizationofemploymentandtheenhancementofjobqualitywithinindustrialsymbiosisnetworks?

7.ArespecificskillsetsrequiredforjobscreatedthroughindustrialsymbiosisintheSouthAfricanlabourmarket,andaretheskillsinquestionreadilyavailable?

Thisstudyreliesonbothquantitativeandqualitativemethods.Itbeginswithareviewofthenationalandinternationalliterature,drawingonthefoundationaldefinitionofindustrialsymbiosisbyChertow(2000).Acasestudy,theWesternCapeIndustrialSymbiosisProgramme,offersinvaluableinsightsintoemploymentimpactsandopportunitiesforjobformalization.ThereportfocusesontwovaluechainsinSouthAfrica,namelytextilesandconstruction,whichwerechoseninviewoflocaldataavailabilityandaccess,andalsobearinginmindglobalconcernsovertheenvironmentalimpactandwastemanagementchallengesofbothsectors.

Thecollectionofprimarydatawascarriedoutthroughstructuredinterviewswithfiveenterprisemanag-ersandrepresentativesofemployers’organizationsacrossinformalandformalenterprises.Additionally,surveysweredistributedamongworkersininformaljobsandenterprises,providinganessentialfirst-handperspectiveonjobqualityandformalization.Atotalof18workerswereinterviewed.Itisworthnotingthat,inmanycases,thelinebetweenoperatingasaninformalworkerandentrepreneurshipisblurred,assuchworkersoftenhaveotherpeopleintheiremployonaninformalbasis.

Whileitwasfeasibletoconductinterviewswiththemanagersofmoreformalenterprisesbydigitalmeansofcommunication,therewereseveralobstaclesingatheringinsightsfromworkers(bothformalandinformal),

TheemploymenteffectsofindustrialsymbiosisnetworksintheSouthAfricaninformalsector11

includingwidespreadpublictransportstrikesandflooding.Owingtotime-andaccess-relatedconstraints,representativesofworkers’organizationsandtradeunionswerenotinterviewed.

Linkageswereidentifiedamongtheorganizationsincludedintheanalysisofthetextilevaluechain,involvingtheexchangeofmaterialsfromautomotiveupholsteryproducersandotherindustrialtextilemanufacturersthataresubsequentlyusedtocreatenewfabricsandproductsfurtherdownthevaluechain.Overandabovethat,oneorganizationengagedinindustrialsymbiosis–specificallyinreceivingmaterialsandby-productsfromarangeofmanufacturersasfeedstockinreplacementofrawmaterialsforthecreationofsaleableproducts–alsoprovidesskillstraining.Thosereceivingsuchtrainingareadditionallytaughthowtorunenterprisesoperatingontheprinciplesofareclaim-andrepair-basedeconomy.Severaloftheseindividualshavegoneontoruntheirownsmallbusinessesusingtextileby-products–someformal,othersinformal.Withregardtotheconstructionvaluechain,linkageswerelargelyanchoredarounddemolition,theex-changeofmaterialsandtimberuse.Again,thesematerialsareusedinreplacementofrawmaterialsforbusinesscreationthroughsecondarysectordevelopment,andsuchactivitiesarehighlydependentonlogisticsandtransport.Inmostcases,materialsfeedbackintothebuiltenvironment,thoughthereisalsosomeactivityatthebottomofthevaluechain,assawdustfromtimberisusedinsmall-scaleagricultureformulchandcomposting.Aswiththetextilevaluechain,thereisabalanceofinformalandformalenterprises,withmostobservationsinourstudyreferringtosmallfirmsandmicroenterprises.

Forthegreaterpart,thisreportconsistsof:

1.Anexplorationofexistingindustrialsymbiosisnetworks,particularlythoseinvolvedintheWesternCapeIndustrialSymbiosisProgramme.Thissectionlooksattheoriginsandcharacteristicsofsuchnetworks,thememberenterprisesand,mostimportantly,theintricateemploymentdynamicsarisingfromindustrialsymbiosis.

2.Adetailedexaminationofemploymenteffects,theaimbeingtoprovideanoverviewofjobcreation,theskillsetsrequired,workers’perceptionsofworkingconditions,andformalizationeffortswithinmemberenterprises.Moreover,thissectionconsidersthebroadervaluechain,unravellingtheindirectemploymenteffectsofindustrialsymbiosis.

ThisstudyprovidesanuancedunderstandingoftheemploymentlandscapeinSouthAfrica’sinformalsector,sheddinglightontheinteractionsbetweenindustryandlabour.

2.Literaturereview

Industrialsymbiosisisanemergingapproachthatpromotescollaborationandresource-sharingamongindustries,aimingtoenhanceenvironmentalsustaina