科技論文學(xué)習(xí)總結(jié)

科技論文學(xué)習(xí)總結(jié)散記0.科技論文寫作的基礎(chǔ)知識0.1文體上的特點0.1.1科技寫作要求采用有效的文體（effectivestyle）,在寫作中并不需要你創(chuàng)造形成自己特有的風(fēng)格，相反地，你應(yīng)該努力做到在寫作質(zhì)量上達到下列要求，如：清晰性clearness、直接性directness、簡明性conciseness和可讀性readability.此外還要求語言簡練simplicity、準確precision.0.1.2避免使用僵硬的虛夸的語言e.g.increasethevisibilityoftheincandescentgases改為：maketheflameeasiertosee.0.1.3使用具體的專門的語言即：避免采用抽象和一般的語言。e.g.Weplantopresentaproposalcoveringallimportantaspectsoftheproblem.改為OnOctober10weshallpresentaproposalcoveringcost,materials,methodology,andpersonnel.科技琯作中具體和專門的措辭必然會帶來對事物理解的直接性directness.0.1.4避免使用長句子避免寫過長的句子，過長的句子往往贊成內(nèi)容的混亂，應(yīng)該把過長的句子拆開分成幾個獨立的較短的句子，但也不應(yīng)走到另一極端，把一個句子分成很多過短的句子，因為這樣會贊成零碎單調(diào)的感覺?？傊?，文章中的句子，應(yīng)該有長有短，也有適中的，適當搭配，避免千篇一律。句子結(jié)構(gòu)也要求簡單和直接，避免不必要的復(fù)雜化，現(xiàn)在比較下面兩個句子：Thenextstepconsistedoflookingformethodsbywhichthelossesthatoccurredinthebearingsmightbeeliminated.改為：Thenextstepconsistedoflookingformethodsofeliminatingthelossesinthebearings.簡單化的目的是使句子更清晰更可讀，如果起了相反的效果則不可取。0.1.5簡明性conciseness是科技文章的一個重要方面要避免用詞的重復(fù)。如：costsrisetohigherlevel,只用costsrise就可以了。如：duetothefactthat縮減為：dueto就可以。Duringtheyearsbetween縮減為between就可以了。再如：Itisessentialthatwetaketheseprecautionsifourcrewsaretobesafe改為theseprecautionsareessentialtothesafetyofourcrews.簡明性不僅僅是節(jié)省文章的空間，更重要的是節(jié)省讀者的時間，但為了文章的簡明，不可走得過遠，不可為簡明而犧牲了清晰性、可讀性、自然性、準確性和必須強調(diào)之處。e.g.Preventingcatalystselectivitydeteriorationisdifficult.應(yīng)改為Itisdifficulttopreventtheselectivityofthecatalystfromdeteriorating.0.1.6句子的擴展方法在科技文章中，特別是在高水平的學(xué)術(shù)論文中，時常需要寫一引起復(fù)雜的長句以表達較多的較完整的科技信息，而避免寫成一連串的短句子以適合于專業(yè)人士閱讀。這些句子初看起來很復(fù)雜，但在文字語言結(jié)構(gòu)上，特別是在文章的整體上，表現(xiàn)出了高度的簡潔和精煉，反映了文體的高效性。如：Avarietyofproteinsincludingcasein,lactalbumin,lactoferrin,angiogenin-1andangiogenin-2arepresentinmilk.這里including是現(xiàn)分作后置定語。0.2會議論文與期刊論文Conferences:CommunicationandconnectionarethemajorpurposesJournals:1.Therequirementsvaryfordifferentjournals2.Submitmanuscripttotherightjournal3.Maysubmittoaconferencefirst1寫論文的步驟和方法寫論文大綱要寫好文章必須先有一個寫作大綱，它是文章的骨架和草圖。大綱的作用一是能幫助明確和完善文章的具體內(nèi)容，二是能使文章的內(nèi)容條理化、系統(tǒng)化和周密化。文章作者如果經(jīng)歷了科研實踐、調(diào)查研究和新聞記者文獻等各階段，又進行了定主題和選材料兩個步驟，則對文章的結(jié)構(gòu)和內(nèi)容已心中有數(shù)了，只要把構(gòu)思的結(jié)果以綱要的形式寫出來，再稍加修改，就會成為文章的寫作大綱了，有了大綱，寫文章就容易得多了?？紤]使用哪些圖和表寫出前言和概述（摘要），寫出其他要寫而沒有寫的部分。對各部分進行修飾。檢查和修改。大綱的產(chǎn)生大綱的組織可由樹狀結(jié)構(gòu)派生出來。當你用一句簡明的句子寫出你的主題時，就得到了樹狀結(jié)構(gòu)頂點，然后問你自己：要讀者了解這個主題，要解釋的主要部分是什么？這就得到了樹狀結(jié)構(gòu)的第二層結(jié)構(gòu)。然后再問：這一部分中有些什么要素？要使讀者了解這些要素需要哪些要點？這樣就得出了這篇廣平的組織框圖。Title多數(shù)作者在題目中不用定冠詞the,但也有用的，用的少。文章題目應(yīng)簡法明了，具體要求體而不空洞，并能概括全篇，使閱后能抓住文章的意圖和核心。T.1NottoogeneralT.2ReflectthecontentT.3TrytobeuniqueT.4CanbedoneatalaterstageExample:Design,FabricationandEvaluationofaMobileRobotforPolarEnvironmentsThetitleistheonlypartofyourpapermostpeoplewillread-makeitclear,concise(self-contained)andinformativeActualfindingsshouldbedescribedwithclaimsthatcanbesupportedItshouldbecatchy/memorableThetitleisalabel,notasentenceThelistofAuthorsStudentfirst,supervisorsecondAnauthorofapapershouldbedefinedasonewhotakesintellectualresponsibilityfortheresearchresultsbeingreportedGivecreditwhereitisdue.Itdoesnotcostanything,anditcreatesfriends.ScienceismoreofasocialactivitythanyoumightthinkAuthors’affiliationsandcorrespondingauthorListonlythoseco-authorswhocontributedsubstantiallytothework（Ethicsofscientificwriting）AbstractTheabstractisvitallyimportant-withoutdoubtthemostimportant200-300wordsinthepaperNeverforgetthattheabstractisoftentheonlythingreaderswillreadfromyourpaper.Payattentiontoit!Makeitveryconcise,clear-cut,easytoread.AvoidtechnicaltermsorcomplicatedreasoningFirst1-2sentences:introductiontotheconceptNext1-2sentences:thesystemandthespecificquestionNomethods,unlessunavoidableornewNextxsentences,abriefsummaryoftheresultsFinal1-2sentences:conclusionYoucanendwithasentencethathintsatthemajortopicofthediscussionTypedasasingleparagraphNoabbreivations/orcitationsAsasummaryofworkdone,itiswritteninpasttenseA.1ProvideenoughinformationaboutthepaperA.2BeconcisebutcoverthecontributionsA.3PointouttheuniquenessofthepaperA.4PolishthewritingcarefullyThedynamicsofworkforceskilllevelshasaconsiderableimpactonplant-levelperformancethatiscommonlyoverlookedbymanagersofmanufacturingoperations.Inthisstudy,wepresentadiscreteeventsimulationmodel…>Thispaperpresentsaframeworktoillustrate….Introduction這部分主要說明為什么要進行這項研究，有關(guān)本課題的研究現(xiàn)狀，本研究的目的和范圍等。導(dǎo)言不同于摘要和結(jié)論，也不代替文章的其他部分。時態(tài)方面：更多的用到的是一般將來時。Nomorethan2pagesAbadbeginningmakesabadendingcallattentiontothespecificsubject,definetheproblemprovidebackgroundandpresenttheresultsofotherstudies(literaturereview)Shouldnotbe(too)technicallistthestructureofyourresearchprojectandwhatyouplantopresentinyourpaperE.g.n.willbeaddressedthrough….Thispaperisconcernedwith….Amethodwillbeofferedtoquantifyhumanreliabilityusingprobabilisticmodels.Anintroductiontothen.willbeoffered.Adiscussionwillbepresentedastohowthemethodcanbeusedtostudy….Thefourthsectionoftheprojectwillpresentanexampleofhowthe….Finally,aconclusionwillbeofferedwhichcontainstheresults,operatingcharacteristicsoftheanalysisandqualificationsthereto.1.Provideabackgroundoftheresearch(motivation)2.Presentaliteraturereview(conciseandcomplete)3.Statetheproblemaddressedinthepaper(importance)4.Highlightthecontributions(toimpressthereviewers)5.Organizationofthepaper(easiertoread)以下是Introduction中采用的可能的句式Itisalsohighlycontroversial.>Theextant（現(xiàn)存的）literatureconcerningjobdesignandmotivationinleanproductionisfragmented,with>Thereisanurgentneedtodevelopeffectivepersonnelselectionmechanismtofindthetalentswhoarethemostsuitabletotheirownorganization.>ThemainfocusisalwaysuponunderstandingandbeingabletouseCPmethodologyindailylife.>ThisisindeedthecasewithCleanerProduction,wherethefocusisoftenonanindividualproductionsite,ratherthanexaminingtheimpactsoftheparticularproductionsite>…aredescribedinSection2.Section3showsresultsofthecriticalityanalysisandtheeffectivenessofcorrectiveactions.Finally,suggestionsandconcludingremarksaregiveninthelastsection.>Ourresearchspecificallyaddressesthefollowingthreequestions:1.Whatis…2.howdoes…3.Doesthe..>Weempiricallyvalidatedthemodelparameters>Theremainderofthepaperisstructuredasfollows.Section2providesbackgroundonthe>Relatedliteratureindicatesthat>Recentresearchhasdemonstratedmoregenerallythat>文獻引用：AccordingtoHyeretal.（），jobdesignisoneoftheimportant….>Realizingtheneedtoreducemanufacturingcosts,improvequality,andrespondtothechangingneedsofcustomers,manyfirmshaveintroducedadvancedmanufacturingtechnology(AMT)intheexistingresources.>Duringthepastfiftyyearstherehasbeenasignificantbodyofexperimentationanalyzingtheinterfacebetweenhumans,theequipmenttheyuseandtheenvironmentinwhichtheywork.>Theinterestedreaderisreferredto查閱(作者，年份)whichcontainsadetailedstudyof….>Therearenumerousstudieswhichhavebeenperformedv.ing動賓結(jié)構(gòu)。>Itiswelldocumentedthat….>Asseeninexistingstudies,therearetwoproblems:在當前的研究中，存在問題。Numbercitationsconsecutivelyinsquarebrackets[1].Punctuationfollowsthebracket[2].Refersimplytothereferencenumber,asin[3].Use“Ref.[3]”or“Reference[3]”atthebeginningofasentence:“Reference[3]wasthefirst…”》Muchmorerarely,thereissometimesaneedtogainaccesstothespaceacrossbothcolumnsjustabovethemaintext.LiteratureReviewDevelopinganoutlinechronologicalarrangementcomparisonandcontrastincontraversionaltheoriesCreatingaskeletonselectafewdocumentsandwriteabouteachdiscernthemainpointsoftheircontentsHighQualityofReviewFreefrombiasConstructiveIn-depthandthoroughreviewTheemphasisonthepointsofmajorimportanceBody>trainingisthesubjectofthe6thofDeming’s14pointphilosophyofbusinessqualitymanagement.>Theprocessisasfollows.First,MaterialsandMethodsSufficientdetailsothatworkcanberepeatedDescribenewmethodsindetail-thedegreeofreplicationandsensitivityCitetheacceptedmethodbrieflyusingreferenceIfapublishedmethodismodified,suchmodificationsmustbedescribedindetailStatisticalanalysisofdataifappropriate.Usesubheadingsasneededforclarityaskacolleagueifhe/shecanfollowthemethodologySinceyourprocedureshavebeencompleted,reportthemusingpasttense.ResultsDisplayofdatawithlogicaldevelopmentshowinghowyourfindingssatisfyyourobjectivesTheresultsshouldbeshortandsweet,withnoexcessverbiagePresentanddiscussresultsconciselyusingfiguresandtablesasneededFindingsdescribedinpasttenseGenerallydoesNOTincludeexplanationsordiscussionoftheresultsTableandfigurelegendsshouldbeaccompaniedwithsufficientinformationformainpoint.TableandfigureshouldbeabletostandaloneAlltablesandfiguresmustbenumberedintheorderinwhichtheyarementionedinthetextNumericaldatawiththecorrectnumberofsignificantdigitsDiscussionthehardestsectiontowrite,youdiscuss,youdonotrecapitulatetheResultsshowtherelationshipamongobservedfactsClearlyindicatewhatnewinformationisprovidedbythepresentstudy--originalityendwithashortsummary/conclusionDiscussionAdviceMovefromyourspecificfindingstotheliterature,theoryandpracticeMakesurenottoignorethemajorissue(diditresolveproblem,answerquestion,supporthypothesis?Don’tovergeneralizeormakeunsupportedconclusionsDon’tignoredeviationsinyourdataAvoidspeculationthatcannotbetestedinnearfutureb.1Model/Problemformulationb.1.1Providecompleteinformationandformulatetheproblemclearlyb.1.2Presentthesystemequationsb.1.3Defineallsymbolsb.1.4Numbertheequationscorrectlywithproperalignment>Operationalperformancedatawereobtainedfromthemanufacturingmanagementsystemoutput,aswellasfrommeasurementstakendirectlyfromtheassemblyareasduringthesitevisits.>WevalidatedtherelativenumericvaluesofeverymodelparameterwithACE’sengineersandourempiricaldata.>Theoverallmodelwasfurtherrefinedandvalidatedthroughanextensiveb.2Proposedmethod/Derivation/Proof/Designb.2.1Providecompleteandrigorousworkb.2.2Pointoutexisitingbackgroundresearchresultsb.2.3Presentdetailsb.2.4Usefiguresb.3Resultvalidation/Simulation/Experimentb.3.1Describesetupusedb.3.2Providesettingsb.3.3Presentdetailedresultswithcompleteinformationb.3.4Summarizeresultsbasedonthepresentedresultsb.3.5Letthereaders/reviewersjudgebasedondataprovidedConclusionsandFutureworkConclusionsshouldnotbeasummaryoftheworkdoneoravirtualduplicationoftheabstractConclusionsshouldbejustifiedbythedatapresentedEmphasisshouldbeonmajorconclusionsandimplicationConclusionisoptionalinmanyscientificjournals關(guān)于結(jié)論的寫法，有的文章寫成整段，有的文章分開成幾條內(nèi)容Inyour

conclusionyoumusttakeupyourthesisinsuchawaythatthereadercan

seehowsuccessfullyandconvincinglyithasbeentreated.itisinsufficienttohaveonlyoneconcludingsentence.A

goodconclusionwillnotonlystatewhatthewriterhastriedtoshowbut

willalsogivethereadersomeadditionalinformationorideas.Such

additionalideascan,forexample,pointoutquestionsraisedbythepaper.

hepurposeofnewideasattheendofthepaperistokeepthereaders

fromputtingthepaperawaywithoutthinkingaboutit.Whilethe"hook"in

theopenermakesthereadercuriousaboutthepaper,anewideainthe

conclusionforcesthereaderintocontinuedthoughtabouttheauthor's

ideas.>Wehopewiththismodeltohavemadeafirststeptowardtheirresolution.>Theresultsofthepresentstudydemonstratetheimportanceof>Ourresultsshowthat>Thus,anarearipeforfutureresearchisan…>Itmayalsobepossibleto>Theresultsindicate,amongotherthings,that….>Thereareopportunitiesforfurtherresearchutilizing….>Theframeworkdevelopedinthisarticlepresentsthe….>TheprocessdescribedhereinoffersonemethodforquantifyingtheC.1HighlightcontributionsC.2LastchancetoconvincethereviewersC.3OpportunitytofillanycracksC.4Generalfuturework,butdetailedfutureplanisnotnecessaryAcknowledgmentTechnicalassistanceAdviceonresearchormanuscriptGiftsofmaterialsAssistanceinpreparingmanuscriptFinancialassistanceAcknowledgment》 Thepreferredspellingoftheword“acknowledgment”inAmericaiswithoutan“e”afterthe“g.”》ThisworkwassupportedbytheIEEE.ReferenceDon’tusetheworkofotherswithoutappropriateattribution（Ethicsofscientificwriting）R.1UseconsistentformatR.2ProvidecompleteinformationR.3AllreferencesarecitedinthepaperR.4SelectthemorerelevantreferencesR.5IncludeyourownpapersRevisingaPaperr.1Startwritingearlyr.2Manyroundsbetweenthestudentandsupervisor(s)r.3Makeeveryefforttomakethemanuscriptperfectr.4Usethemostconvenientformat/template/editorSubmittingaPaperSubmitthepapertothejournal’seditor(onlytoonejournal)Hard-copyofmanuscript(usuallythreeormorecopies)DiskofthesameversionText:Word,WordPerfect,TeX/LaTeX,etc.Figures:tif,gif,postscript,etc.S.1SelecttherightjournalorconferenceS.2Beprofessionalwithcoverletter,etc.S.3Respondcorrectlytotheeditor/reviewer‘scommentsS.4RemainethicalAscientificpaperisnotliterature.Iftheingredientsareproperlyorganized,thepaperwillalmostwriteitself.段落寫法每段應(yīng)有一個中心思想，早點寫明，且盡可能放在主題句的位置。若作者能夠邏輯地組織且在段落之間提供過渡的話，則作者就可以更好的遵循你的思路。Thewriterwhodealswithseveral

majorideasinoneparagraphwilldefinitelyconfusereaders.Iwastemptedtowritethatthefocusofa

paragraphshouldbeononeideaandthatthecentralideaoughttobewell

supported.段.1OUTLINEByfollowinganoutlineclosely,writerswill

usuallyavoidthemistakeoftreatingseveralideastogether,asadditional

ideasareoftenafterthoughtsthatoccurwhilethewriteriswritinga

draft.段.2valuablenewideasIfthenewideasarevaluable,thewritermustchangethestructure

ofthepaper,providingproperparagraphsforeachidea.

段.3ideas—evidencesupportItisnotenoughtomerelystateone'sidea.Ideasmustbe

supportedtobecomeforcefulandconvincing.Ifyouwerewritingthepaper

onpublictransportationandarguedthattrainsareasafemodeof

transportationwithoutshowingevidence,areader,thinkingofsomerecent

trainaccident,mightdisagreeandsaythattrainsareunsafe.After

readingsuchanunsupportedstatement,thereadermaynolongerbelieve

anythingyouhavewritten.Yourstatementwouldbemuchmoreconvincingif

youbacked(支持)itwithstatisticsthatprovetherelativesafetyofrail

transport.Writingwithoutsupportresultsinunconvincingpapers.Bygivingevidence,then,youmakesurethatyoukeepthereaderwithyou

throughoutyourpaper.Ihavealreadyexplainedtheimportanceof

logicalstructure,focusingononeidea,andsupportingyourideas.段.4paragraphconnection&TransitionsTransitionsarenotonlydesirablebetweenparagraphs,theyarealso

necessarybetweensentenceswithinoneparagraph.段.5writingprocedurePaperwritingintheUnitedStates

consistsofthreesteps:saywhatyouwanttodo,doit,saywhatyouhave

done.科技英語結(jié)構(gòu)科技英語的目標在于說明事實和事理，特別強調(diào)事物的客觀性，表達的準確性和簡明性，與日常英語和文學(xué)英語有許多不同的特點。1.廣泛使用被動語句在科技英語中不強調(diào)個人的作用，因此廣泛使用被動語態(tài)無人稱句。2.普遍性論述凡論述的內(nèi)容屬于客觀真理、科學(xué)定律、公式或定義之類，均用現(xiàn)在時態(tài)，以表示其具有普遍性意義。3.動詞不定式表示目的和功能科技文章常使用動詞不定式來表示目的或目標，即為什么要做一件事。如：Theaircraftisdesignedtoflyat800kilometersperhour.不定式也可以用于被動語態(tài)。4.名詞修飾名詞在科技英語中，可用作名詞的詞亦可用于修飾另一個名詞。如：Theoiltankerreachestherefinery,wheretheoilisprocessed.Whenthetankerreachestherefinery,itsloadofcrudeispumpedintotherefinerystoragetanks.5.句子力求簡明及句子的簡縮方法科技文章的內(nèi)容要求簡潔明確，力求把長句子縮短。如Whentheyareheatedunderpressure,theconstituentsfusetogether.改為Whenheatedunderpressure,theconstituentsfusetogether.還可進一步改為：Heatedunderpressure,theconstituents5.1復(fù)合名詞Anewwater-towerisbeingbuiltinthevillage.相當于：Anewtowerforstoringwaterisbeingbuiltinthevillage.由這一例可以看出，介詞后可以加動賓短語，而并不一定必須是動名記或是名詞短語。有的復(fù)合名詞很長，理解它的意義時要遵循從后向前推的原則，例如：adayandnightweatherobservationstation.要理解意義得從后向前推,即：astationforobservationweatherbothbydayandbynight關(guān)于復(fù)合名詞要注意三點;名詞修飾名詞時，前一名詞多用單數(shù)。第一點：有的復(fù)合名詞中間用連字符連接，有的沒有這中間沒有嚴格規(guī)定，有時有沒有連字符在意義上沒有區(qū)別。如：textbook和text-book和textbook.但多詞合成時有時應(yīng)用得小心：smallcarfactory是可以理解為小的生產(chǎn)car的工廠。如果asmall-carfactory,是指生產(chǎn)小車的工廠，也許還很大呢。第二點：復(fù)合詞的前半部分永遠是單數(shù)因為它起到形容詞的作用，形容詞是沒有復(fù)數(shù)的。如：astudenthostel,其含義是指：ahostelforstudents第三點：有多種形式形成復(fù)合詞的兩個名詞之間的關(guān)系可以有許多形式：agas-jar=ajarforcontaininggasagas-meter=ameterformeasuringgasgassupply=thesupplyofgasthegaslight(光)=lightsuppliedbyburninggasthegaslaws(定律)=scientificlawsaboutthebehaviorofgases.5.2‘s的使用及單多人的發(fā)現(xiàn)和發(fā)明無生命的東西所有格永遠不要使用‘S。對于人物的所有格，有時使用’S,有時用復(fù)合名詞，省去…of…，主要根據(jù)以下原則確定：1）單人的發(fā)現(xiàn)用所所有格表示Boyle’slaw,Avogadro’shypothesis2)單人的發(fā)明用復(fù)合名詞表示aBunsenburner,theKelvinscale3)對于發(fā)現(xiàn)與發(fā)明分不清的方法、技術(shù)等下面的兩種表示方式都可以：Fulanidiscoveredanewmethodofstainingcells.Fulaniinventedanewmethodofstainingcells.4)當兩人或以上人的發(fā)現(xiàn)或發(fā)明均用復(fù)合結(jié)構(gòu)theStefan-Boltzmanlaw,theJoule-Thompsoneffect等。5.3被動關(guān)系從句的簡縮5.3.1從句中動詞后有介短時在科技英語寫作中，從句中動詞后有介詞短語時，把wh-word和be省去，如：Anobjectwhichisleftinthesunbecomeshot.簡縮為：Anobjectleftinthesunbecomeshot.5.3.2wh-word+be+verb-ed，將P.P.提前1）被動關(guān)系從句中只有wh-word+be+verb-ed時，則把過去分詞提到主語前，如：Airwhichiscompressedcanbeusedforseveralpurposes.應(yīng)簡縮為：Compressedaircanbeusedforseveralpurposes.2）如果被動關(guān)系從句中含有not時，則把not和動詞提到主語名詞前，改變成un+動詞，同時省去wh-word+be,如：Theliquidwhichwasnotwantedwasthrownaway.,簡縮為：Theunwantedliquidwasthrownaway.3）如果被動關(guān)系人名中含有方式副詞時，則把副詞和動詞一起提到主語前，同時省去wh-word+be.如：Abridgewhichisbadlydesignedmayhaveashortlife.簡縮為：Abadlydesignedbridgemayhaveashortlife.以上我的理解是：是用過去分詞來代替了定語從句來達到簡縮的目的。4）如果在從句動詞之后有介詞短語inthisway或inthismanner時，則把介詞短語縮減為so或thus,放在動詞之前，同時省去wh-word+be,例如：Theresultswhichwereobtainedinthiswaywereinaccurate.簡縮為：Theresultssoobtainedwereinaccurate.5)如果被動關(guān)系從句中的動詞為used+for+verb-ing時，只保留verb-ing,并移到主格名詞之前，例如：Thetoolwhichisusedforcuttingwasspeciallydesigned.簡縮為：Thecuttingtoolwasspeciallydesigned.(個注：實質(zhì)上是用現(xiàn)分的前置來取代定從)5.4主動關(guān)系的簡縮5.4.1若主動關(guān)系從句的動詞后有介詞短語時，則變成動詞+ing并省去wh-word,例如：Thislensproducesrayswhichconverge（會聚）towardapoint.簡縮為：Thislensproducesraysconvergingtowardapoint.5.4.2若主動關(guān)系從句的動詞后沒有介詞短語，則動詞加上ing后提到主語前，并省去wh-word，例如：Thislensproducesrayswhichconverge.簡縮為：Thislensproducesconvergingrays.5.4.3若主動關(guān)系從句的動詞之后有副詞，則副詞變?yōu)樾稳菰~，提到動詞之前，動詞加上ing,用短線連接后一起提到主語前，例如：Ariverwhichflowsfast.變?yōu)椋篈fast-flowingriver.5.5被動“if”和“when“從句的簡縮當主要從句和附屬從句的主語都是論及同一事物時，由if和when引導(dǎo)的從句中的主語和be可以省去，例如：Anobjectbecomeshotifitisplacedinthesun.簡縮為：Anobjectbecomeshotifplacedinthesun.Objectsbecomehotwhentheyareplacedinthesun.簡縮為：Objectsbecomehotwhenplacedinthesun.6．使用帶IF的句子在科技英語中常用if…then…這個式子來表示一種論證或動作的順序。句子的后半部分內(nèi)容取決于前半部分。Then在句子中對后續(xù)詞起到加強語氣的作用，如果該處不需要加強時，then可以省略。當句子中兩部分的主語相同時，then常常省去。如：Iffoodisnotpreserved,itwillgobad.如果句子的兩部分對調(diào)，不用then.如：Thebeam(橫梁)willbreak,ifitissubjectedtoaheavyload.7.”tobe”和“tohave”優(yōu)先科技英語注重敘述的客觀性，傾向于把各種事物看作具有一定性質(zhì)的被動的實體，而不作為主動的作用者，下幾組例子都屬于科技英語，但科技工作者更喜歡用TOBE和tohave結(jié)構(gòu)代替動詞，因為后者的客觀性更強些。如：Tiresistscorrosionbyairorwater.改為Tiisresistanttocorrosionbyairorwater.或Tihasaresistancetocorrosionbyairorwater.如:Commonsaltdissolvesinwater.改為：Commonsaltissolubleinwater.如：Benzeneboilsat80.4Cundernormalpressure.改為：Benzenehasaboilingpointof80.4Cundernormalpressure.如：Thestoragevesselcanhold1,000liters.改為：Thestoragevesselhasacapacityof1,000liters.8語態(tài)：被動與主動語態(tài)8.1大量使用被動語態(tài)為了客觀地描述事物，文章中盡量用被動語態(tài)。被動語態(tài)句子的意義更清楚，若句中過多的提到了人，不但不必要，而且易引起混亂；其次，被動語態(tài)把事物作為主語，強調(diào)主語在事物的重要地位；第三，被動語態(tài)的句子更簡短。如：Theexperimenterfixesalongmetalbarinaretortstandbyoneend.Heheatstheotherendinaflameuntilitbecomesred.Hethenmovesthebarandthestand(座)awayfromtheheat.Hefindsthatthetemperatureofthehotendofthebarfallsrapidly.改為：Alongmetalbarisfixedinaretortstandbyoneend.Theotherendisheatedinaflameuntilitbecomesred.Thebarandthestandarethenremovedawayfromtheheat.Thetemperatureofthehotendofthebarisfoundtofallrapidly.在漢語中的“被”字?？墒÷?。在科技英語中大多數(shù)被動語態(tài)句子中都沒有作用者。如果完成某項工作是用一件工具，則用with,而不用BY.(3)must,should和被動語態(tài)。在指導(dǎo)書、警告和注意事項通知中特別普遍。有些用-EN結(jié)尾的動詞，經(jīng)常與must和should一起出現(xiàn)在被動句子中。下列動詞是由形容詞或名詞派生的。如：tighten,weaken,strengthen,lengthen.（4）被動態(tài)和不定式結(jié)構(gòu)常用來表示將要發(fā)生的或必須進行的動作。如Theexperimenthastoberepeated.Thenewfactoryistobeopenednextmonth.被動態(tài)不定式結(jié)構(gòu)可用于表示不確定的事物。如：isthoughttobe…;…isestimatedtohavea…;此外，believed,said均可用于表示不確定，known和shown用于表示確定。8.2主動語態(tài)第一人稱主動語態(tài)在科技論文中常使用第一人稱主動語態(tài)來表達著者在研究工作中獨有的做法、見解和新發(fā)現(xiàn)，使讀者清楚地知道性于該著者的首創(chuàng)和取得的進展，免得使讀者辨別不清。但是總的來說，第一人稱主動語態(tài)在同一篇文章中用的次數(shù)是較少的，一般不超過3至5次，因為這種文章所論述的對象是以客觀事物為主體的。9.關(guān)系從句使用關(guān)系從句的目的是避免寫出一串的短句。它使作者在主要從句中表達主要信息的同時，在關(guān)系從句中表達次要的信息。主要從句一般是描述結(jié)果或表示原理，關(guān)系從句不是主要從句，它一般是描述條件和環(huán)境的，在科技英語中常由which引導(dǎo)。如：Anobjectisleftinthesun.Anobjectbecomeshot.兩句合為一句后：Anobjectwhichisleftinthesunbecomeshot.9.1縮短的關(guān)系從句。9.1.1被動態(tài)關(guān)系從句在科技英語中，被動態(tài)關(guān)系從句經(jīng)常被縮短，使句子更簡明，其縮短方法是同時省去wh-word和be.如：Piecesofironwhichareleftintherainbecomerusty.變?yōu)椋篜iecesofironleftintherainbecomerusty.但是有介詞的從句不能被縮短。如fromwhich..含有情態(tài)動詞的從句不以縮短，否則意義會發(fā)生變化。如：(A)Hereisalistoftheexperimentswhichwillbedonethisyear.(b)Hereisalistoftheexperimentswhichshouldbedonethisyear.(C)Hereisalistoftheexperimentswhichhavebeendonethisyear.這三句均不能縮短為：Hereisalistofexperimentsdonethisyear.這種情況感覺是過去分詞作后置定語，作用是主語和分詞之間的關(guān)系是被動的。9.1.2主動態(tài)關(guān)系從句縮短此時wh-word(which等)被省去，同時動詞變?yōu)楝F(xiàn)在分詞。如：ThemanwholecturesonTuesdayisanexpertindynamics.縮短為：ThemanlecturingonTuesdayisanexpertindynamics.(個注:感覺這種用法實質(zhì)上可以理解為現(xiàn)在分詞作后置定語，且主語和現(xiàn)分所表達的關(guān)系呈現(xiàn)出主動關(guān)系)。含有情態(tài)動詞的主動語態(tài)從句不能縮短。在wh-word和動詞之間有名詞或代詞時，句子是不能縮短的。如：Thisisthepenwhichheuses.不能改為：Thisisthepenheusing.10.情態(tài)動詞科技英語的句子中常含有情態(tài)動詞，最覺的有三組：最常見的有三組：第一組為CAN,MAY,MIGHT,COULD;第二組為WILL;第三組為SHOULD,MUST,HAVETO.第一組情態(tài)動詞常用以說明可能性和概率，例如：breaks>canbreak>maybreak>could/might(這里并不can和may的過去時)>cannot第二組WILL的意義可由下列句子的比較中看出：will+verb含有預(yù)測的含義；而不加will則表示一般性的規(guī)定。時態(tài)選擇1.對發(fā)現(xiàn)和發(fā)明的描述科學(xué)技術(shù)上的發(fā)現(xiàn)和發(fā)明都是過去的事情，為了說明當時的情況，除了用到過去時態(tài)以外，還要用到其他時態(tài)，情況比較復(fù)雜。如：TheDiscoveryoftheVelocityofLightIn1676Romerdiscoveredthatlighttravelsatadeterminedspeed.HisdiscoverywasbasedonthefactthatafewyearspreviouslyotherastronomershadidentifiedthesatelliteoftheplanetJupiter.Ithadalsobeendiscoveredthateachsatellitetookacertaintimetomakeonecircuitoftheplanet.Romerobserved…2.對物體和物質(zhì)性質(zhì)的描述在科技寫作中常需要對物體或物質(zhì)的性質(zhì)和用途等進行描述，這種描述的特點是用單數(shù)，現(xiàn)在時，一般不舉例。3）時.1一般過去時一般過去時用于描述發(fā)生在過去而現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)完成的動作。描寫過去的動作時，常用到一些時間詞和時間短評，它們是early,thefirst,originally和initially.科技論文中的時態(tài)一般都只用一般現(xiàn)在時；很少用一般過去時和現(xiàn)在完成時態(tài)。若有具體的過去的時間，這時才會用一般過去時。時.2現(xiàn)在完成時時.2.1用在以when,that,inwhich引導(dǎo)的附屬從句中，且含有“持續(xù)一段時間的含義”。只用在一定情況下的這些從句中，來描寫科學(xué)事實和事件。如：Itwillbeobservedthatsomeofthesugarhasnotdissolved.Turnofftheburnerwhenthesubstancehasbeenreducedtoash.上述句子從句中的動作都有已經(jīng)持續(xù)了一段時間這一情況，再看下句：Turnofftheburnerwhenthesubstanceisreducedtoash.這個句子雖然可以這樣寫，但比不上前句準確，因為加熱的物質(zhì)不會一下子變成灰的。但下面的一般現(xiàn)在時卻是正確的：Ironexpendswhenitisheated.因為膨脹是伴隨加熱同時發(fā)生的。小結(jié)：當從句中的動作要持續(xù)一段時間后才可執(zhí)行主句中的動作時，從句中的謂語動詞才用現(xiàn)在完成時。如果是同時發(fā)生的，則用一般現(xiàn)在時就OK了。當句子中有時間段的論述時，必需使用現(xiàn)在完成時。例如：Turnofftheburner(火焰)whenthesubstancehasbeenleftintheflameforthreeminutes.Aftertheyhaveboiledforfiveminutes,comparethelevelsoftheliquids.注意：一定是從句中的動作表示的是持續(xù)的時間，而主句中的動作是即時動作。時.2.2現(xiàn)在略前或現(xiàn)在前剛發(fā)生的動作例如：Thebookhasrecentlybeenpublished.(表示剛剛被出版)如果提到具體的時間則用過去時：Thebookwaspublishedlastmonth.時.2.3未說明時間的現(xiàn)在以前的動作Manhasbeentothemoon.Anetworkofcommunicationsatelliteshasbeenestablished.側(cè)重說明事實，而不強調(diào)完成的時間。時.2.4過去開始延續(xù)到現(xiàn)在并可能延續(xù)到未來的動作。如：Thishasbeenknownforfortyyears.Thishasbeenknownsince1930.若下面的則得用過去式表示，則變成：Thiswasfirstknownfortyyearsago.Thiswasfirstknownin1930.時.2.5現(xiàn)在完成時的主要動詞be和一些形容詞或介詞短語連用。即：BE和形容詞或介詞短語連用時。如：Penicillinhasbeeninusesince1943.來代替：Penicillinwasfirstusedin1943.Thishasbeenoutofuseforayear.來代替：Thishasnotbeenusedforayear.其他常用形容詞和介詞短語可用下式表示：Thishas(thesehave)beenopen…independent…inexistence…inuse/outofuseinoperation/outofoperationunderconsideration/underdiscussion…這種結(jié)構(gòu)在形容詞或介詞短評之后要用since說明起始時間，如：TheU.N.hasbeeninexistencesince1943.時.3It+被動態(tài)動詞+that…在科技英語中常用到it-that結(jié)構(gòu)，其中的it是虛的，并不指代任何東西，它主要有下列四種句型：Ithasbeen{showndemonstratedthat….proved}如：IthasthereforebeenshownthatanglesABCandDEFareequal.2)Itwillbe{seennotednoticedobserved}that…如：ItwillbenotedthatthisresultissimilartothatobtainedbyFisherandJones.此處will并不表示未來，它的意思是說：Thereaderwillseethat…3)Itusedtobethoughtthat…Itwasoncethoughtthat…用來表示過去曾認為正確的而現(xiàn)在已不認為是正確的說法的一種方式。4）Althoughitisoftensaidthat…,thisisnottrue.Itis{oftencommonlygenerally}saidthat…,but…believed.如：Itiscommonlybelievedthat…,butthisisnottrue.這是用來否定某些廣為相信的俗見的一種方式。同位語和插入語同.1）同位語同位語（Appositive）是指句子的某一成分后面有另外的詞、短語或從句（同位語從句）對該成分作進一步說明，在語法上和該成分處于同一地位。在科技英語中廣泛使用同位語。其用法如下：同位語在說明的句子成分之后，其間沒有逗號，如：Unlikeoxygen,theelementnitrogenisnotactive.同位語前后有逗號或破折號，例如：Watercanbedecomposedbyenergy,acurrentofelectricity.又如：Thesetechnologiescreateakindofreal-time,multilingualintercom,saysJohnPatrick,vicepresidentofinternettechnologyatIBM.3)用or引出同位語如：Undercertainconditionsthiscompoundsplitsup,ordecomposes,intotwosubstances.4)用suchas引用同位語5）用連詞that引出從句作同位語，稱為同位語從句，例如：Thisexperimentleadstotheconclusionthatlikechargespepeleachotherbutunlikechargesattracteachother.同.2)插入語插入語（Parenthesis）是指在句中插入的詞、短語或句子，用逗號隔開而與句中成分沒有語法關(guān)系的部分。單個詞作插入語這類詞有indeed,certainly,surely,however等。如：Thismachineisup-to-date,indeed.2)介詞短語作插入詞這類短語有inshort,ofcourse,ingeneral,infact,inotherword,forexample等，如：Amodernaircraft,forexample,carriesquitealotofelectronicapparatus.3)介詞短語作插入語這類短語有g(shù)enerallyspeaking,strictlyspeaking等，如：Generallyspeaking,ironisapttorust.4)不定式短語作插入語這類短語有：tobesure,tosumup,totellthetruth等，如（毫無疑問）Tobesure,theatomictheoryhelpsusagreatdealinunderstandingallmatter.5)插入句是在一個勉勵子中插入另外一個或短或長的句子，短的有Iamsure,Ibelieve,Ith