第八章青少年與父母的溝通

AssistingcommunicationbetweenparentsandadolescentsDemographicandPsychologicalPredictorsofParent--AdolescentCommunicationAboutSex:ARepresentativeStatewideAnalysis.父母–青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的人口學(xué)和心理學(xué)預(yù)測指標(biāo)：全州范圍的代表性樣本分析

關(guān)于性的溝通〔以下簡稱性溝通〕是父母子女間傳遞性價(jià)值，信念，期待和知識的主要手段。盡管這個(gè)領(lǐng)域已經(jīng)受到了相當(dāng)多的注意，為了確保這些發(fā)現(xiàn)反映了整個(gè)人群的興趣，更多的代表性樣本的研究是需要的。本研究取樣自美國一個(gè)龐大且多樣化的州，被試是有青少年孩子的家庭，目的是審視父母與他們的青少年子女之間的性溝通的內(nèi)容和程度，以及所選擇的主要人口學(xué)變量〔年齡和性別〕，社會(huì)人口學(xué)變量〔西班牙語民族，教育，和宗教活動(dòng)的出席率〕，以及心理學(xué)變量〔自我報(bào)告的輕松，知識，以及性溝通的困難〕這些因素對于所討論話題的數(shù)量的影響。超過2/3的父母都報(bào)告說體驗(yàn)到某種性溝通的困難，諸如成長的擔(dān)憂，和難堪。分層回歸的結(jié)果說明，自我報(bào)告的輕松，知識，以及性溝通的困難都很強(qiáng)勢地預(yù)測了所討論話題的數(shù)量，其影響超過了人口學(xué)變量。這些發(fā)現(xiàn)強(qiáng)化了這樣一個(gè)觀念，即父母與青少年之間的性溝通可以是普遍地具有挑戰(zhàn)性，而所有的父母，不管其性別，年齡和各種社會(huì)人口學(xué)變量如何，都可以從教育和支持中受益。Sexualcommunicationisaprincipalmeansoftransmittingsexualvalues,beliefs,expectations,andknowledgebetweenparentsandchildren.Althoughthisareahasreceivedconsiderableresearchattention,morestudieswithrepresentativesamplesareneededtoassurethatfindingsarereflectiveofpopulationsofinterest.Arepresentativestatewidesampleofhouseholdswithadolescents(N=907)fromalargeanddiversestateintheUnitedStateswasemployedtoexaminethecontentandextentofsexualcommunicationbetweenparentsandtheiradolescents,andtheinfluenceofselectedprimarydemographic(ageandgender),socio-demographic(Hispanicethnicity,education,andreligiousattendance),andpsychological(self-reportedcomfort,knowledge,andsexualcommunicationdifficulties)factorsonthenumberoftopicsdiscussed.Morethantwo-thirdsoftheparentsreportedexperiencingsometypeofsexualcommunicationdifficulty,suchasdevelopmentalconcernsandembarrassment.Hierarchicalregressionresultsindicatedthatself-reportedcomfort,knowledge,andsexualcommunicationdifficultiesstronglypredictedthenumberoftopicsdiscussed,beyondtheeffectofdemographicvariables.Thesefindingsreinforcethenotionthatsexualcommunicationbetweenparentsandadolescentscanbeuniversallychallenging,andparentsofbothgenders,allages,andallsocio-demographiccharacteristicsmightbenefitfromeducationandsupport.Parentalexpertise,trustworthiness,andaccessibility:parent-adolescentcommunicationandadolescentriskbehavior.父母與子女溝通時(shí)表現(xiàn)的專業(yè)知識，可信賴性和通俗性：父母-青少年溝通與青少年風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為父母與子女溝通時(shí)表現(xiàn)的專，信，達(dá)：父母-青少年溝通與青少年風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為

利用說服和態(tài)度轉(zhuǎn)變的溝通框架來分析父母就青少年風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為展開的溝通。假定存在以下3個(gè)重要的父母維度：〔a〕被感知到的專業(yè)知識〔以下簡稱專〕，〔b〕被感知到的可信賴性〔以下簡稱信〕，〔c〕被感知到的可理解性〔以下簡稱達(dá)〕。數(shù)據(jù)來自針對紐約貧窮社區(qū)的668對父母子女的調(diào)查。結(jié)果顯示，母親所感知到的自己的專，信，達(dá)與其子女所描述的，兩者之間只有很弱的一致性。所有這些維度都與青少年與其母親談?wù)擄L(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為的次數(shù)相聯(lián)系，而這種溝通那么能夠預(yù)測青少年風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為低于平均值。Acommunicationframeworkofpersuasionandattitudechangewasutilizedtoanalyzeparent-adolescentcommunicationaboutadolescentriskbehavior.Threeparentdimensionsweredeemedimportant:(a)perceivedexpertise,(b)perceivedtrustworthiness,and(c)perceivedaccessibility.Datawerecollectedinsurveysfrom668mother-adolescentdyadsineconomicallydisadvantagedneighborhoodsinNewYorkCity(N=668).Resultsshowedweakcorrespondencebetweenhowexpert,trustworthy,andaccessiblemothersthoughttheywereontheonehandandhowtheirsonsanddaughterscharacterizedthemontheother.Alldimensionswererelatedtohowoftenadolescentssaidtheytalkedwiththeirmothersaboutariskbehavior,which,inturn,waspredictiveoflowerlevelsofadolescentriskbehavior.Implicationsforfutureresearcharediscussed.波多黎各和多米尼加都市家庭中母親與青少年關(guān)于吸煙的溝通波多黎各和多米尼加都市家庭中母親與青少年關(guān)于吸煙的溝通Mother-adolescentcommunicationabouttobaccouseinurbanPuertoRicanandDominicanfamilies

對于拉丁美洲人家庭中父母青少年關(guān)于吸煙問題的溝通的研究相對仍然很少。面對拉丁美洲人青少年的高比例吸煙人群和拉丁裔成年人對吸煙引起的疾病與死亡所要承擔(dān)的巨大責(zé)任，這方面信息的匱乏是令人擔(dān)憂的。本文以拉丁裔都市家庭樣本為例，對父母-青少年就吸煙展開的溝通進(jìn)行了質(zhì)的分析。本文作者主持了12個(gè)焦點(diǎn)小組，其中有40對波多黎各和多米尼加母子，他們都居住在紐約的Bronx社區(qū)。本文發(fā)現(xiàn)，母親對于與孩子談?wù)撐鼰焼栴}是沒有障礙的。青少年表達(dá)了與母親討論與吸煙相關(guān)問題的愿望，其中有些人擔(dān)憂父母的懲罰。結(jié)果彰顯了父母對于社會(huì)對于吸煙的影響和它的成效的育兒知識的空缺。最后，從開展一個(gè)減少拉丁裔人群吸煙比率的干預(yù)的角度，討論了本文的結(jié)果。Researchonparent-adolescentcommunicationaboutcigarettesmokinginLatinofamiliesremainsrelativelyscarce.ThisdearthofinformationisworrisomegiventhehighratesoftobaccouseamongLatinoadolescentsandthelargeburdenbornebyadultLatinosinsmoking-relatedmorbidityandmortality.Thisstudypresentsqualitativedataonparent-adolescentcommunicationaboutcigarettesmokinginasampleofurbanLatinofamilies.Theauthorsconducted12focusgroupswith40PuertoRicanandDominicanmother-adolescentdyads(N=80)residingintheBronxcommunityofNewYork.Thefindingsindicatethatthemotherswerecomfortablediscussingsmoking-relatedissueswiththeirchildren.Adolescentsexpressedadesiretodiscusstobacco-relatedissueswiththeirmothers,althoughsomefearedparentalpunishment.Theresultshighlightagapinparentalknowledgeandefficacyregardingsocialinfluencestosmoke.ResultsarediscussedinthecontextofdevelopingfocusedinterventionsaimedatreducingcigarettesmokingamongLatinoyouth.Parent--AdolescentCommunicationAboutSexualPressure,MaternalNormsAboutRelationshipPower,andSTI/HIVProtectiveBehaviorsofMinorityUrbanGirls.(sexuallytransmittedinfection)父母青少年關(guān)于性壓力的溝通，母親關(guān)于關(guān)系影響力的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)與少數(shù)民族都市女孩的性病和艾滋并預(yù)防行為。少數(shù)種族/民族的女孩在艾滋病毒感染方面有著與其人口多寡不成比率的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，而且她們在作出獨(dú)立的性決策時(shí)面臨著障礙，但是父母給出的信息可以幫助他們在面臨性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)時(shí)保護(hù)自己。作者審視了非裔和西班牙語裔女孩的性病和艾滋病預(yù)防措施；父母-青少年關(guān)于性壓力的溝通；以及母親的性別標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。當(dāng)母親與孩子討論伙伴的性壓力，而父親討論抵抗伙伴的性壓力時(shí)，青少年就更有可能實(shí)施一貫的預(yù)防性病和艾滋病措施。如果性活潑的女孩感到母親對于性的參與持有一種平等的觀點(diǎn)，她們會(huì)有更為一貫的避孕套的使用。面對著日益增長的性病和艾滋病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，父母與女兒討論性伙伴之間的動(dòng)力學(xué)過程是非常關(guān)鍵的。護(hù)士對于促進(jìn)這樣的交談可以發(fā)揮獨(dú)特作用。她們可以為母親提供與年齡匹配的資源，幫助她們使恐懼常態(tài)化，這樣做可以增進(jìn)父母-孩子關(guān)于性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的交流。Racial/ethnicminorityadolescentgirlsbearadisproportionateriskforHIVandfacebarrierstoautonomoussexualdecisionmaking,butparentalmessagesmayhelpprotectagainstsexualrisktaking.TheauthorsexaminedAfricanAmericanandHispanicgirls'sexuallytransmittedinfection(STI)andHIVpreventionpractices,parent--adolescentcommunicationaboutsexualpressure,andmaternalgendernorms(N=118).TeensweremorelikelytopracticeconsistentSTI/HIVpreventionwhenmotherstalkedaboutpartnersexualpressure(p=.017)andfatherstalkedaboutresistingpartnersexualpressure(p=.034).Sexuallyactivegirlswhoperceivedthattheirmothersheldegalitarianbeliefsaboutpartnerdecisionmakinghadmoreconsistentcondomuse(p=.029).GiventhecontextofincreasedSTI/HIVrisk,itiscriticalthatparentsdiscusspartnerdynamicswithdaughters.Nursesplayauniqueroleinfacilitatingtheseconversations;theyprovideparentswithage-appropriateresourcesandassistinnormalizingfears,whichcanhelpincreaseparent--childsexual-riskcommunication.Hopelessness,parent-adolescentcommunication,andsuicidalideationamongChineseadolescentsinHongKong.(Authorabstract)(Report)香港華人青少年中的絕望，父母-青少年溝通與自殺觀念基于香港5557名中學(xué)生的回應(yīng)，本研究檢驗(yàn)了感知到的絕望，家庭功能，以及自殺觀念之間的關(guān)系。結(jié)果顯示，自殺觀念與絕望正相關(guān)，但是與父母-青少年溝通負(fù)相關(guān)。相比與父親-青少年溝通，母親-青少年溝通一般來說與青少年自殺觀念有更強(qiáng)的相關(guān)。進(jìn)一步還發(fā)現(xiàn)，絕望與青少年自殺觀念之間的聯(lián)系在父母-青少年低溝通的情況下更強(qiáng)，因此提示我們，父母-青少年溝通對于絕望對自殺觀念的影響具有調(diào)節(jié)作用。最后討論了這些發(fā)現(xiàn)的理論和實(shí)踐意義。Basedontheresponsesof5,557ChinesesecondarystudentsinHongKong,therelationshipsamongperceivedhopelessness,familyfunctioning,andsuicidalideationwereexamined.Resultsshowedthatsuicidalideationwaspositivelyrelatedtohopelessness,butnegativelyrelatedtoparent-adolescentcommunication.Comparedwithfather-adolescentcommunication,mother-adolescentcommunicationgenerallyhadastrongerassociationwithadolescentsuicidalideation.Itwasfurtherfoundthatthelinkagebetweenhopelessnessandadolescentsuicidalideationwasstrongerunderalowparent-adolescentcommunicationcondition,thussuggestingthemoderatingeffectofparent-adolescentcommunicationontheeffectofhopelessnessonsuicidalideation.Thetheoreticalandpracticalimplicationsofthefindingsarediscussed.Genderdifferencesinadolescentperceptionsofparent-adolescentopennessincommunicationandadolescentempathy.青少年對父母-青少年溝通的開放性的感知以及青少年的神入的性別差異本研究的目的是要檢驗(yàn)性別如何影響了青少年對于父母-青少年溝通的開放性的感知與青少年的神入的關(guān)系。利用分層多元回歸分析檢驗(yàn)了以青少年性別與父母溝通的交互作用來預(yù)測神入的另外兩個(gè)維度〔神入性擔(dān)憂和視野的采認(rèn)〕的可能性。被試為236名年齡14-16歲的青少年。青少年的性別，母親-青少年溝通的開放性，以及父親青少年溝通的開放性是青少年神入性擔(dān)憂的顯著預(yù)測指標(biāo)。性別也在母親-青少年溝通的開放性與神入性擔(dān)憂之間的關(guān)系中起著調(diào)節(jié)作用。進(jìn)一步看，母親-青少年溝通的開放性是青少年視角采擇的強(qiáng)勢的預(yù)測因素。Thepurposeofthisstudywastoexaminehowtherelationshipbetweenadolescentperceptionsofopennessinparent-adolescentcommunicationandadolescentempathymaydifferbygenderoftherespondent.Hierarchicalmultipleregressionanalyseswereusedtotestthepossibilityofaninteractionbetweenadolescentgenderandparentcommunicationinpredictingtwoother-orienteddimensionsofempathy(empathicconcernandperspectivetaking)in236adolescentsages14to16.Genderoftheadolescent,opennessinmother-adolescentcommunication,andopennessinfather-adolescentcommunicationweresignificantpredictorsofadolescentempathicconcern.Genderalsomoderatedtherelationshipbetweenopennessinmother-adolescentcommunicationandempathicconcern.Further,opennessinmother-adolescentcommunicationwasasignificantpredictorofadolescentperspectivetaking.FocusgroupAfocusgroupisaformofqualitativeresearchinwhichagroupofpeopleareaskedabouttheirperceptions,opinions,beliefsandattitudestowardsaproduct,service,concept,advertisement,idea,orpackaging.[1]Questionsareaskedinaninteractivegroupsettingwhereparticipantsarefreetotalkwithothergroupmembers.ThefirstfocusgroupswerecreatedattheBureauofAppliedSocialResearchintheUSA,byassociatedirector,sociologistRobertK.Merton.[2]ThetermitselfwascoinedbypsychologistandmarketingexpertErnestDichter

TypesoffocusgroupsTwowayfocusgroup-onefocusgroupwatchesanotherfocusgroupanddiscussestheobservedinteractionandconclusion.Dualmoderatorfocusgroup-onemoderatorensuresthesessionprogressessmoothly,whileanotherensuresthatallthetopicsarecovered.Duelingmoderatorfocusgroup-twomoderatorsdeliberatelytakeoppositesidesontheissueunderdiscussion.Respondentmoderatorfocusgroup-oneandonlyoneoftherespondentsareaskedtoactasthemoderatortemporarily.Clientparticipantfocusgroups-oneormoreclientrepresentativesparticipateinthediscussion,eithercovertlyorovertly.Minifocusgroups-groupsarecomposedof4or5membersratherthan6to12.焦點(diǎn)小組的類型雙行焦點(diǎn)小組〔Twowayfocusgroup〕：一組觀察另一組并對結(jié)果進(jìn)行討論。雙協(xié)調(diào)員焦點(diǎn)小組〔Dualmoderatorfocusgroup〕：一名協(xié)調(diào)員負(fù)責(zé)過程順利進(jìn)行，另一名負(fù)責(zé)所有話題都得到討論。對抗焦點(diǎn)小組〔Duelingmoderatorfocusgroup〕：兩名協(xié)調(diào)員成心采取對抗立場?；貞?yīng)者焦點(diǎn)小組〔Respondentmoderatorfocusgroup〕：每次僅由一名回應(yīng)者暫時(shí)充當(dāng)協(xié)調(diào)員當(dāng)事人焦點(diǎn)小組〔Clientparticipantfocusgroups〕：一或多名當(dāng)事人代表秘密或公開地參與討論微型焦點(diǎn)小組〔Minifocusgroups〕由4-5名，而不是6-12名成員組成的焦點(diǎn)小組。Thecontentandprocessofmother-adolescentcommunicationaboutsexinLatinofamilies.

西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程Eighteenfocusgroupswereconductedwith63adolescent--motherpairs;mothersandadolescentswereassignedtoseparategroups.Infamilieswithmorethanoneeligibleadolescent,theyoungesteligiblechildwasselected.Ninefocusgroupswereconductedwithmothersandninewithadolescents,withanaverageofsevenparticipantsineachgroup.西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程3個(gè)與內(nèi)容相關(guān)的主題是：〔1〕對需要等到適當(dāng)時(shí)候才性交的討論的重要性，〔2〕討論性交后果的重要性，〔3〕討論有關(guān)性交和避孕的具體方法的信息的困難。2個(gè)與過程相關(guān)的主題是：〔1〕青少年的性別如何影響了關(guān)于性的溝通，〔2〕母親的文化背景與青少年所居住的美國都市社區(qū)有明顯不同，性的溝通受到此種對照的影響。青少年焦點(diǎn)小組的數(shù)據(jù)用來驗(yàn)證從母親數(shù)據(jù)中浮現(xiàn)出來的主題，同時(shí)注意到這里有兩點(diǎn)不同。Thethreecontent-relatedthemeswere(1)theimportanceofdiscussingtheneedtowaittohavesexualintercourse,(2)theimportanceofdiscussingtheconsequencesofhavingsexualintercourse,and(3)thedifficultiesofdiscussingspecific,technicalinformationaboutsexualintercourseandcontraception.Thetwoprocess-relatedthemeswere(1)howcommunicationaboutsexisshapedbyanadolescent'sgenderand(2)howcommunicationaboutsexisaffectedbythecontrastbetweentheculturalbackgroundsofmothersandtheurbanAmericanneighborhoodsinwhichtheynowlive.Adolescents'focus-groupdatawereusedtocorroboratethethemesemergingfromthemothers'data,withdifferencesinthetwobeingnoted.西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程與內(nèi)容相關(guān)的主題：〔1〕對需要等到適當(dāng)時(shí)候才性交的討論的重要性。從2個(gè)焦點(diǎn)團(tuán)體中浮現(xiàn)出來的首要的主題是，中學(xué)的青少年應(yīng)該盡可能晚地才開始性交。盡管大多是母親都贊同，應(yīng)該告訴青少年推遲性交，聚焦于學(xué)習(xí)，但是母親們關(guān)于推遲性交的具體說法是不同的。母親們一致地強(qiáng)調(diào)了要求孩子完成學(xué)業(yè)的重要性，并且認(rèn)識到過早地性交會(huì)中斷孩子們的教育進(jìn)程。正如某一位母親所說，“我告訴女兒說，她必須管好自己，在她這個(gè)年齡這一點(diǎn)是最重要的，學(xué)習(xí)是她的首要任務(wù)，她應(yīng)該全心全意地學(xué)習(xí)，耐心地等待。〞一般而言，母親們強(qiáng)調(diào)了讓孩子知道需要推遲性交的重要性。有一位母親這樣討論她的關(guān)鍵信息，她說“把時(shí)間花在學(xué)校上，學(xué)習(xí)并體驗(yàn)生活。〞母親們也討論了傳達(dá)推遲性交的信息的方式，以便適應(yīng)青少年不同方面的成長，例如身體的和男女朋友關(guān)系的成熟。例如有一位母親說：“我對女兒說，你正在長大，給自己一點(diǎn)時(shí)間，將來你會(huì)有男朋友的，性交并不是壞事情，但是你仍然需要長大一些。〞另一位母親強(qiáng)調(diào)結(jié)婚之前都要克制，她說，“我告訴女兒，你知道嗎，作為一個(gè)處女結(jié)婚，這是多么美好的一件事？〞但是母親們也說，盡管他們向自己的青少年孩子強(qiáng)調(diào)了克制的高度重要性，她們?nèi)匀粨?dān)憂，他們的忠告是否會(huì)被遵循。用一位母親的話來說便是：“如果你禁止他們從事性活動(dòng)，他們還是會(huì)我行我素，把你的話當(dāng)耳邊風(fēng)。〞Content-RelatedThemesImportanceofDiscussingtheNeedtoWait.Aprimarythemethatemergedfrombothfocusgroupswasthatmiddle-schooladolescentsshoulddelayinitiatingsexualintercourseforaslongaspossible.Thecontentofmothers'messagesaboutdelayingsexualintercoursediffered,althoughthemajorityofmothersagreedthatadolescentsshouldbetoldtodelaysexualintercourseandremainfocusedontheireducation.Mothersconsistentlystressedtheimportanceoftellingtheiradolescentstofinishschoolandrecognizedthatearlysexualbehaviorcouldinterrupttheiradolescent'seducationalprogress.Asonemotherstated,"WhatItell[mydaughter]isthatshehastotakecareofherself,nottobeintheageforanyofthat,thatshehastolearnprimarilytodedicateherselftoherstudiesandwait."Ingeneral,mothersstressedtheimportanceofconveyingtheneedtodelaysexualbehavior,withonemotherdiscussingherkeymessage,"Taketimetogotoschool,learnandexperiencelife."Mothersalsodiscussedhowtoframemessagesaboutdelayingsexualintercourseinwaysthatrecognizednormativeaspectsofadolescentdevelopment,suchasphysicalmaturationandromanticrelationships.Forinstance,onemothersaid,"Isaidtomydaughters,youaregoingtogrow,giveyourselftime,youwillhaveaboyfriend.[It]isnotabadthingtohavesexualintercoursebutyoustillneedtogrowforthat."Othermothersemphasizedabstinenceuntilmarriage,saying,"Itellmydaughter,'Youknowhowbeautifulitisforagirltomarrybeingavirgin?'"Mothersalsoindicatedthatalthoughtheystressedaprimarymessageofsexualabstinencewiththeiradolescents,theyoftenfearedtheiradvicewouldnotbefollowed.Inthewordsofonemother,"Ifyouprohibitthem[fromhaving]sex,theyarestillgoingtodoitregardless."西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程

〔2〕討論性交后果的重要性。對于我們這個(gè)焦點(diǎn)小組中的母親而言，確保青少年理解不成熟的性活動(dòng)的后果的重要性，成為談話中浮現(xiàn)出來的一個(gè)高度重要的話題。大局部母親對于討論這樣的話題都感到相對容易，這類話題涉及到性活動(dòng)要冒感染性病和艾滋病，以及意外懷孕的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。正如一位母親所說，“我和孩子談?wù)摿撕芏嘈躁P(guān)系引起疾病的事，因?yàn)樗麄冞€是青少年，而這樣的事情是可能發(fā)生在任何人身上的。〞母親們也顯示出他們很愿意很直截了當(dāng)?shù)刈尯⒆用靼走@樣的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。正如一位母親所言簡意賅地表達(dá)的：“性交活動(dòng)只延續(xù)兩三分鐘，但是它所帶來的問題卻會(huì)伴隨你終生！〞ImportanceofDiscussingtheConsequences.Forthemothersinourfocusgroups,ensuringtheiradolescentsunderstoodtheconsequencesofprematuresexualbehavioremergedasasignificantpriority.Mostmothersexpressedrelativecomfortwithdiscussingtheconsequencesandrisksofengaginginsexualintercourse,suchasSTDs,HIV/AIDS,andunintendedpregnancy.Asonemotherstated,"Anyofthediseasesfromsexualrelationships,Italkalotaboutitbecausetheyareadolescents,andit'ssomethingthatcanhappentoanybody."Mothersalsoshowedawillingnesstobequitedirectinconveyingtheriskstotheirchild.Asonemothersuccinctlystated,"Thesexonlylaststwoorthreeminutes,buttheproblemsthatresultlastalifetime!"西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程

由于母親主要擔(dān)憂的是孩子的幸福，許多人感到有必要告訴自己的青少年孩子如何保護(hù)自己，防止性病和意外懷孕。在討論這類保護(hù)措施時(shí)，母親們最頻繁提到的是避孕套和口服避孕藥。然而有些母親也表達(dá)了擔(dān)憂討論避孕方法實(shí)際上會(huì)寬容了他們的青少年孩子的性行為。正如某個(gè)母親認(rèn)識到的，“這正是玄機(jī)所在，既要告訴他，不能這么干，當(dāng)然又要告訴他，如果他想要這么干，就要保護(hù)好自己。〞另一位母親擔(dān)憂，為孩子準(zhǔn)備好避孕套，就等于“為他的性活動(dòng)開了路。〞有一位母親感到，讓女兒服用避孕藥，可以減輕性交帶來的某些消極后果，但是她也有類似的沖突，討論避孕這一類的事，會(huì)在無意中批準(zhǔn)了孩子的性行為。盡管存在這樣的擔(dān)憂，母親們?nèi)匀桓械?，性活潑帶來的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)實(shí)在太嚴(yán)重，沒法讓人不與孩子討論避孕的事。正如某一位母親所指出的，“我并不喜歡避孕套，但是我確實(shí)感到父母應(yīng)該讓孩子了解這樣的措施。〞Becausemothers'mainconcernwasfortheirchildren'swell-being,manyfeltitwasimperativetotelltheiradolescentshowtoprotectthemselvesagainstSTDsandunintendedpregnancy.Whendiscussingsuchprotection,mothersmostoftenmentionedcondomsandoralcontraceptives.However,somemothersexpressedconcernthatdiscussingcontraceptivemethodswouldimplicitlycondonetheiradolescents'sexualbehavior.Asonemotherrecognized,"Thatiswherethetrickis,tellinghimthathecannotdoit,andofcoursetell[ing]himthatifheisthinkingaboutdoingit,toprotecthimself."Anothermotherfearedthatmakingcondomsavailabletochildrenwouldbetantamountto"openingwaysforthemtohavesex."Onemotherfeltthathavingherdaughtertakeoralcontraceptivescouldalleviatesomeofthenegativeconsequencesofengaginginsexualintercourse.However,shewassimilarlyconflictedthatdiscussingthiswouldinadvertentlysanctionheradolescent'ssexualbehavior.Despitethisfear,mothersfelttherisksofbeingsexuallyactivewerefartooserioustonotdiscusscontraceptionwiththeiradolescents.Asonemotherpointedout,"I'mnotinfavorofcondoms,butIdothinkthatparentsshouldinformtheirchildren."西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程

從青少年這方面看，對于與父母討論性交的后果他們是能夠接受的。焦點(diǎn)小組中的大局部青少年都認(rèn)識到，在他們這個(gè)年齡，有一定程度的父母的指導(dǎo)是很重要的，而且他們相信父母會(huì)傳達(dá)關(guān)于克制和性病，以及懷孕風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的信息。某些青少年也相信，對性交后果的討論應(yīng)該在他們轉(zhuǎn)向性活動(dòng)之前就開始。正如某一個(gè)青少年注意到的，討論應(yīng)該早些開始“我認(rèn)為，教育孩子越早越好…越早越好。〞青少年們也表達(dá)了某些關(guān)于不同避孕方法和性行為風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的知識。有一個(gè)年青人談到了關(guān)于性交后果，例如懷孕和小小年級就染上疾病的擔(dān)憂。青少年關(guān)于性活潑后果的討論主要圍繞著意外懷孕，成為少年媽媽，以及更一般化地談到“陷入麻煩〞的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。有幾個(gè)青少年專門提到了感染性病和艾滋病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。有一個(gè)提到他缺乏關(guān)于艾滋病病毒〔HIV〕的知識。他說：“好似，我沒有聽說過HIV.〞相比之下，另一個(gè)青少年認(rèn)識到了性活潑的健康風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，他指出“你會(huì)年級輕輕就患上致死的疾病，實(shí)際上就無法再充分享受生活。〞Fortheirpart,adolescentsreportedthattheywouldbereceptivetotalkingwiththeirmothersabouttheconsequencesofengaginginsexualintercourse.MostadolescentsinthefocusgroupsrecognizedtheimportanceofhavingsomedegreeofparentalguidanceattheirageandbelievedparentsshouldconveymessagesaboutabstinenceandtherisksofSTDsandteenagepregnancy.Someadolescentsalsobelievedthatdiscussionsabouttheconsequencesofengaginginsexualintercourseshouldstartbeforetheytransitiontosexualbehavior.Asoneadolescentnoted,discussionsshouldbeginearly:"Ithinktheearlier,thebettertoteachthekid...theearlier,thebetter."Adolescentsexpressedsomeknowledgeaboutdifferentmethodsofcontraceptionandabouttherisksofsexualbehavior.Oneyoungpersonvoicedconcernsabouttheconsequencesofhavingsexualintercourse,suchasbecomingpregnantor"sick"atanearlyage.Adolescents'discussionsabouttheconsequencesofbeingsexuallyactivecenteredprimarilyonunintendedpregnancy,becomingateenagemom,and,moregenerally,abouttherisksof"gettingintotrouble."AfewadolescentsspecificallymentionedtheriskofcontractingSTDsorHIV/AIDS.OneindicatedhislackofknowledgeaboutHIVbystating,"Like,Iain'theardofHIVornothing."Incontrast,anotheradolescentrecognizedthehealthrisksofbeingsexuallyactivewhenhepointedoutthat"youcouldgetsickataveryyoungageofadeadlydiseaseandnotreallyenjoylifetothefullest."西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程〔3〕討論有關(guān)性交和避孕的具體信息的困難。盡管母親們對于傳達(dá)克制和性交后果的信息表現(xiàn)出相對地輕松，但是當(dāng)母親們談及具體的與性交后果和節(jié)制性欲有關(guān)的信息時(shí)卻表現(xiàn)出某種困難。大局部母親都贊成說，這樣的討論可以讓人感到不舒服，窘迫，而且對雙方來說都是一種情緒化的體驗(yàn)。有一位母親如是說，“我對兒子提起了這個(gè)話題，而他有時(shí)候不愿意談這樣的事，與我交談讓他感到難堪。〞有些母親感到談?wù)撔越缓捅茉惺艿搅俗璧K，因?yàn)榍嗌倌旰ε赂改傅囊尚暮退麄冴P(guān)于性行為的知識會(huì)帶來懲罰。正如某個(gè)母親所注意到的，“由于性是一個(gè)禁忌的主題…通常孩子對父母有一種敬畏，而且他們害怕懲罰。〞母親們說，對于成認(rèn)和接受他們的孩子也許是性活潑分子，她們感到有難度。正如某一位母親所說，“當(dāng)某個(gè)人發(fā)現(xiàn)某些事情已經(jīng)開展到那樣的程度，這正是父母難以面對的事情。〞而且，母親們解釋說，在與孩子討論性這類的問題上他們所體驗(yàn)到的某些困難源于他們在其中生長的文化是不在家里談?wù)撨@類事情的。DifficultiesDiscussingSpecificInformationaboutSexandContraception.Althoughmothersexpressedrelativeeaseincommunicatingmessagesaboutabstinenceandtheconsequencesofsexualintercourse,nearlyallmothersexpressedsomedifficultydiscussingspecific,fact-basedinformationaboutsexualintercourseandbirthcontrol.Mostmothersconcurredthathavingsuchdiscussionscouldbeanuncomfortable,embarrassing,andemotionalexperienceforbothpartiesinvolved.Asonemothersaid,"Ibringupthesubjecttomyson,andhesometimesdoesn'twantit.Hefeelsembarrassedtalkingtomeaboutit."Somemothersthoughtdiscussionsaboutsexualintercourseandcontraceptionwerehinderedbecauseadolescentsfearedpunishmentstemmingfromparentalsuspicionorknowledgeoftheirsexualbehavior.Asonemothernoted,"Since[sex]isarestrictedsubject...usuallythekidshaverespecttowardstheparents[and]theyfearpunishment."Motherssaidtheyhaddifficultyacknowledgingandacceptingthattheirchildrenmightbesexuallyactive.Asonemotherstated,"Whenonefindsoutaboutsomethingofthatmagnitude,itissomethingdifficultfortheparents."Furthermore,mothersexplainedthatsomeofthedifficultytheyexperiencedindiscussingsexwiththeirchildrenstemmedfrombeingraisedinaculturewheresexwasnotdiscussedwithintheirownfamilies.西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程與過程相關(guān)的主題：性別差異母親與孩子一般都同意，男孩與女孩都應(yīng)該得到同樣的消息和信息。然而，從焦點(diǎn)小組的數(shù)據(jù)中可以看到，實(shí)際上存在明顯的性別差異。例如，某些母親認(rèn)為，父親與兒子談，而母親與女兒談更為適宜。在父親缺席的情況下，母親在與兒子談性的問題時(shí)認(rèn)識到，他們往往不得不承擔(dān)父親的角色。另一個(gè)與性別有關(guān)的差異聚焦于性行為的后果。母親更為擔(dān)憂的往往是女兒懷孕，而不是兒子的導(dǎo)致懷孕行為。一位母親說，“女孩的后果更糟糕，因?yàn)檫@可能導(dǎo)致她們生孩子，而男孩可以一走了之。〞然而另一位母親提起了特別是在拉丁美洲文化中大丈夫風(fēng)氣盛行的情況下，男性青少年需要需要為他們的行動(dòng)承擔(dān)更多的責(zé)任的話題。有一位母親說：“應(yīng)該教會(huì)男孩更好的道德…因?yàn)樵谖覀兊奈幕心腥吮唤o予更多的自由…你必須盡早開始，教他們這樣的價(jià)值觀，這樣男孩子到了一定的年齡就不會(huì)亂搞。〞西班牙語裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過程

Process-RelatedThemesGenderDifferences.Mothersandadolescentsweregenerallyinagreementthatthesamemessagesandinformationaboutsexshouldbeconveyedtobothboysandgirls.Nonetheless,notablegenderdifferencesemergedfromthefocus-groupdata.Forinstance,somemothersbelieveditwasmoreappropriateforfatherstohavediscussionsaboutsexwiththeirsons,whereasmothersshoulddiscusssexwiththeirdaughters.Intheabsenceofafatherfigure,mothersrecognizedthattheyoftenhadtoassumethefather'srolewhenhavingdiscussionsaboutsexwiththeiradolescentsons.Anothergender-relateddifferencefocusedontheconsequencesofsexualbehavior.Motherstendedtobemoreconcernedwithpregnancyoutcomesfortheirdaughtersthanfortheirsons.Onemotherstated,"Theconsequencesforgirlsareworsebecausetheycouldcomeoutwithababywhileboyscansimplywalkaway."However,othermothersraisedtheissuethatadolescentboysneedtotakemoreresponsibilityfortheiractions,particularlygiventheprevalenceofmachismoinLatinAmericanculture.Asonemotherremarked,"Boysshouldbetaughtbettermorals...becauseinourculture,menaregivenalotoffreedom....Youhavetostartearly,teachingthesevaluessothatboysdon'tbecomepromiscuouswhentheyreachacertainage."在親子溝通中談?wù)撔栽掝}時(shí)，青少年關(guān)于性差異的討論是各不相同的。某些青少年相信，父母關(guān)于青少年性問題的消息是因性別而不同的。具體說，青少年認(rèn)為特別是涉及到約會(huì)和關(guān)系時(shí)，父母對男孩往往更遷就，對女孩那么更保護(hù)。有一個(gè)女孩注意到，“對女孩他們總是說…別干那樣的事；有時(shí)候他們哪里也不讓你去，但是那些地方男孩都可以去。〞另一些青少年談起了懷孕后果對于男女孩的不同。正如某女孩所說，男孩同女孩不一樣。這事對男孩輕松…我們就要吃苦頭了…會(huì)懷上孩子。〞某些青少年提起，由于“不同的解剖結(jié)構(gòu)，〞親子間性討論的性質(zhì)應(yīng)該是不同的，父母應(yīng)該與男孩談避孕套，和女孩談口服避孕藥。然而，焦點(diǎn)小組的另一些青少年認(rèn)為，男孩女孩都應(yīng)該意識到所有的避孕方法，而父母傳達(dá)給青少年的最有實(shí)際意義的消息應(yīng)該是自我控制。正如某個(gè)青少年注意到的，“這都一樣，男孩必須控制自己，戴上避孕套…女孩也一樣。他們也得控制。〞Adolescents'discussionsofgenderdifferencesinparent-childcommunicationaboutsexvaried.Someadolescentsbelievedthatparentalmessagesaboutadolescentsexualitydifferedbygender.Specifically,adolescentsthoughtparentswereoftenmorepermissivewithboysandmoreprotectivewithgirls,especiallywithregardtodatingandrelationships.Oneadolescentgirlnoted,"Tothegirlstheyalwayssay...nottodothat;sometimes,theydon'tletthemgooutanywherethattheywouldletaboygo."Otheradolescentsexpressedgenderdifferencesintermsoftheconsequencesofpregnancyforboysandgirls.Asonegirlstated,"Boysaredifferentthangirls.Ya'llboysgotiteasy....Wegetintotrouble...'causewetheoneshavingthe