第八章青少年與父母的溝通

AssistingcommunicationbetweenparentsandadolescentsDemographicandPsychologicalPredictorsofParent--AdolescentCommunicationAboutSex:ARepresentativeStatewideAnalysis.父母–青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的人口學(xué)和心理學(xué)預(yù)測(cè)指標(biāo)：全州范圍的代表性樣本分析

關(guān)于性的溝通〔以下簡(jiǎn)稱性溝通〕是父母子女間傳遞性價(jià)值，信念，期待和知識(shí)的主要手段。盡管這個(gè)領(lǐng)域已經(jīng)受到了相當(dāng)多的注意，為了確保這些發(fā)現(xiàn)反映了整個(gè)人群的興趣，更多的代表性樣本的研究是需要的。本研究取樣自美國(guó)一個(gè)龐大且多樣化的州，被試是有青少年孩子的家庭，目的是審視父母與他們的青少年子女之間的性溝通的內(nèi)容和程度，以及所選擇的主要人口學(xué)變量〔年齡和性別〕，社會(huì)人口學(xué)變量〔西班牙語(yǔ)民族，教育，和宗教活動(dòng)的出席率〕，以及心理學(xué)變量〔自我報(bào)告的輕松，知識(shí)，以及性溝通的困難〕這些因素對(duì)于所討論話題的數(shù)量的影響。超過(guò)2/3的父母都報(bào)告說(shuō)體驗(yàn)到某種性溝通的困難，諸如成長(zhǎng)的擔(dān)憂，和難堪。分層回歸的結(jié)果說(shuō)明，自我報(bào)告的輕松，知識(shí)，以及性溝通的困難都很強(qiáng)勢(shì)地預(yù)測(cè)了所討論話題的數(shù)量，其影響超過(guò)了人口學(xué)變量。這些發(fā)現(xiàn)強(qiáng)化了這樣一個(gè)觀念，即父母與青少年之間的性溝通可以是普遍地具有挑戰(zhàn)性，而所有的父母，不管其性別，年齡和各種社會(huì)人口學(xué)變量如何，都可以從教育和支持中受益。Sexualcommunicationisaprincipalmeansoftransmittingsexualvalues,beliefs,expectations,andknowledgebetweenparentsandchildren.Althoughthisareahasreceivedconsiderableresearchattention,morestudieswithrepresentativesamplesareneededtoassurethatfindingsarereflectiveofpopulationsofinterest.Arepresentativestatewidesampleofhouseholdswithadolescents(N=907)fromalargeanddiversestateintheUnitedStateswasemployedtoexaminethecontentandextentofsexualcommunicationbetweenparentsandtheiradolescents,andtheinfluenceofselectedprimarydemographic(ageandgender),socio-demographic(Hispanicethnicity,education,andreligiousattendance),andpsychological(self-reportedcomfort,knowledge,andsexualcommunicationdifficulties)factorsonthenumberoftopicsdiscussed.Morethantwo-thirdsoftheparentsreportedexperiencingsometypeofsexualcommunicationdifficulty,suchasdevelopmentalconcernsandembarrassment.Hierarchicalregressionresultsindicatedthatself-reportedcomfort,knowledge,andsexualcommunicationdifficultiesstronglypredictedthenumberoftopicsdiscussed,beyondtheeffectofdemographicvariables.Thesefindingsreinforcethenotionthatsexualcommunicationbetweenparentsandadolescentscanbeuniversallychallenging,andparentsofbothgenders,allages,andallsocio-demographiccharacteristicsmightbenefitfromeducationandsupport.Parentalexpertise,trustworthiness,andaccessibility:parent-adolescentcommunicationandadolescentriskbehavior.父母與子女溝通時(shí)表現(xiàn)的專業(yè)知識(shí)，可信賴性和通俗性：父母-青少年溝通與青少年風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為父母與子女溝通時(shí)表現(xiàn)的專，信，達(dá)：父母-青少年溝通與青少年風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為

利用說(shuō)服和態(tài)度轉(zhuǎn)變的溝通框架來(lái)分析父母就青少年風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為展開(kāi)的溝通。假定存在以下3個(gè)重要的父母維度：〔a〕被感知到的專業(yè)知識(shí)〔以下簡(jiǎn)稱專〕，〔b〕被感知到的可信賴性〔以下簡(jiǎn)稱信〕，〔c〕被感知到的可理解性〔以下簡(jiǎn)稱達(dá)〕。數(shù)據(jù)來(lái)自針對(duì)紐約貧窮社區(qū)的668對(duì)父母子女的調(diào)查。結(jié)果顯示，母親所感知到的自己的專，信，達(dá)與其子女所描述的，兩者之間只有很弱的一致性。所有這些維度都與青少年與其母親談?wù)擄L(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為的次數(shù)相聯(lián)系，而這種溝通那么能夠預(yù)測(cè)青少年風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為低于平均值。Acommunicationframeworkofpersuasionandattitudechangewasutilizedtoanalyzeparent-adolescentcommunicationaboutadolescentriskbehavior.Threeparentdimensionsweredeemedimportant:(a)perceivedexpertise,(b)perceivedtrustworthiness,and(c)perceivedaccessibility.Datawerecollectedinsurveysfrom668mother-adolescentdyadsineconomicallydisadvantagedneighborhoodsinNewYorkCity(N=668).Resultsshowedweakcorrespondencebetweenhowexpert,trustworthy,andaccessiblemothersthoughttheywereontheonehandandhowtheirsonsanddaughterscharacterizedthemontheother.Alldimensionswererelatedtohowoftenadolescentssaidtheytalkedwiththeirmothersaboutariskbehavior,which,inturn,waspredictiveoflowerlevelsofadolescentriskbehavior.Implicationsforfutureresearcharediscussed.波多黎各和多米尼加都市家庭中母親與青少年關(guān)于吸煙的溝通波多黎各和多米尼加都市家庭中母親與青少年關(guān)于吸煙的溝通Mother-adolescentcommunicationabouttobaccouseinurbanPuertoRicanandDominicanfamilies

對(duì)于拉丁美洲人家庭中父母青少年關(guān)于吸煙問(wèn)題的溝通的研究相對(duì)仍然很少。面對(duì)拉丁美洲人青少年的高比例吸煙人群和拉丁裔成年人對(duì)吸煙引起的疾病與死亡所要承擔(dān)的巨大責(zé)任，這方面信息的匱乏是令人擔(dān)憂的。本文以拉丁裔都市家庭樣本為例，對(duì)父母-青少年就吸煙展開(kāi)的溝通進(jìn)行了質(zhì)的分析。本文作者主持了12個(gè)焦點(diǎn)小組，其中有40對(duì)波多黎各和多米尼加母子，他們都居住在紐約的Bronx社區(qū)。本文發(fā)現(xiàn)，母親對(duì)于與孩子談?wù)撐鼰焼?wèn)題是沒(méi)有障礙的。青少年表達(dá)了與母親討論與吸煙相關(guān)問(wèn)題的愿望，其中有些人擔(dān)憂父母的懲罰。結(jié)果彰顯了父母對(duì)于社會(huì)對(duì)于吸煙的影響和它的成效的育兒知識(shí)的空缺。最后，從開(kāi)展一個(gè)減少拉丁裔人群吸煙比率的干預(yù)的角度，討論了本文的結(jié)果。Researchonparent-adolescentcommunicationaboutcigarettesmokinginLatinofamiliesremainsrelativelyscarce.ThisdearthofinformationisworrisomegiventhehighratesoftobaccouseamongLatinoadolescentsandthelargeburdenbornebyadultLatinosinsmoking-relatedmorbidityandmortality.Thisstudypresentsqualitativedataonparent-adolescentcommunicationaboutcigarettesmokinginasampleofurbanLatinofamilies.Theauthorsconducted12focusgroupswith40PuertoRicanandDominicanmother-adolescentdyads(N=80)residingintheBronxcommunityofNewYork.Thefindingsindicatethatthemotherswerecomfortablediscussingsmoking-relatedissueswiththeirchildren.Adolescentsexpressedadesiretodiscusstobacco-relatedissueswiththeirmothers,althoughsomefearedparentalpunishment.Theresultshighlightagapinparentalknowledgeandefficacyregardingsocialinfluencestosmoke.ResultsarediscussedinthecontextofdevelopingfocusedinterventionsaimedatreducingcigarettesmokingamongLatinoyouth.Parent--AdolescentCommunicationAboutSexualPressure,MaternalNormsAboutRelationshipPower,andSTI/HIVProtectiveBehaviorsofMinorityUrbanGirls.(sexuallytransmittedinfection)父母青少年關(guān)于性壓力的溝通，母親關(guān)于關(guān)系影響力的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)與少數(shù)民族都市女孩的性病和艾滋并預(yù)防行為。少數(shù)種族/民族的女孩在艾滋病毒感染方面有著與其人口多寡不成比率的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，而且她們?cè)谧鞒霆?dú)立的性決策時(shí)面臨著障礙，但是父母給出的信息可以幫助他們?cè)诿媾R性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)時(shí)保護(hù)自己。作者審視了非裔和西班牙語(yǔ)裔女孩的性病和艾滋病預(yù)防措施；父母-青少年關(guān)于性壓力的溝通；以及母親的性別標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。當(dāng)母親與孩子討論伙伴的性壓力，而父親討論抵抗伙伴的性壓力時(shí)，青少年就更有可能實(shí)施一貫的預(yù)防性病和艾滋病措施。如果性活潑的女孩感到母親對(duì)于性的參與持有一種平等的觀點(diǎn)，她們會(huì)有更為一貫的避孕套的使用。面對(duì)著日益增長(zhǎng)的性病和艾滋病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，父母與女兒討論性伙伴之間的動(dòng)力學(xué)過(guò)程是非常關(guān)鍵的。護(hù)士對(duì)于促進(jìn)這樣的交談可以發(fā)揮獨(dú)特作用。她們可以為母親提供與年齡匹配的資源，幫助她們使恐懼常態(tài)化，這樣做可以增進(jìn)父母-孩子關(guān)于性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的交流。Racial/ethnicminorityadolescentgirlsbearadisproportionateriskforHIVandfacebarrierstoautonomoussexualdecisionmaking,butparentalmessagesmayhelpprotectagainstsexualrisktaking.TheauthorsexaminedAfricanAmericanandHispanicgirls'sexuallytransmittedinfection(STI)andHIVpreventionpractices,parent--adolescentcommunicationaboutsexualpressure,andmaternalgendernorms(N=118).TeensweremorelikelytopracticeconsistentSTI/HIVpreventionwhenmotherstalkedaboutpartnersexualpressure(p=.017)andfatherstalkedaboutresistingpartnersexualpressure(p=.034).Sexuallyactivegirlswhoperceivedthattheirmothersheldegalitarianbeliefsaboutpartnerdecisionmakinghadmoreconsistentcondomuse(p=.029).GiventhecontextofincreasedSTI/HIVrisk,itiscriticalthatparentsdiscusspartnerdynamicswithdaughters.Nursesplayauniqueroleinfacilitatingtheseconversations;theyprovideparentswithage-appropriateresourcesandassistinnormalizingfears,whichcanhelpincreaseparent--childsexual-riskcommunication.Hopelessness,parent-adolescentcommunication,andsuicidalideationamongChineseadolescentsinHongKong.(Authorabstract)(Report)香港華人青少年中的絕望，父母-青少年溝通與自殺觀念基于香港5557名中學(xué)生的回應(yīng)，本研究檢驗(yàn)了感知到的絕望，家庭功能，以及自殺觀念之間的關(guān)系。結(jié)果顯示，自殺觀念與絕望正相關(guān)，但是與父母-青少年溝通負(fù)相關(guān)。相比與父親-青少年溝通，母親-青少年溝通一般來(lái)說(shuō)與青少年自殺觀念有更強(qiáng)的相關(guān)。進(jìn)一步還發(fā)現(xiàn)，絕望與青少年自殺觀念之間的聯(lián)系在父母-青少年低溝通的情況下更強(qiáng)，因此提示我們，父母-青少年溝通對(duì)于絕望對(duì)自殺觀念的影響具有調(diào)節(jié)作用。最后討論了這些發(fā)現(xiàn)的理論和實(shí)踐意義。Basedontheresponsesof5,557ChinesesecondarystudentsinHongKong,therelationshipsamongperceivedhopelessness,familyfunctioning,andsuicidalideationwereexamined.Resultsshowedthatsuicidalideationwaspositivelyrelatedtohopelessness,butnegativelyrelatedtoparent-adolescentcommunication.Comparedwithfather-adolescentcommunication,mother-adolescentcommunicationgenerallyhadastrongerassociationwithadolescentsuicidalideation.Itwasfurtherfoundthatthelinkagebetweenhopelessnessandadolescentsuicidalideationwasstrongerunderalowparent-adolescentcommunicationcondition,thussuggestingthemoderatingeffectofparent-adolescentcommunicationontheeffectofhopelessnessonsuicidalideation.Thetheoreticalandpracticalimplicationsofthefindingsarediscussed.Genderdifferencesinadolescentperceptionsofparent-adolescentopennessincommunicationandadolescentempathy.青少年對(duì)父母-青少年溝通的開(kāi)放性的感知以及青少年的神入的性別差異本研究的目的是要檢驗(yàn)性別如何影響了青少年對(duì)于父母-青少年溝通的開(kāi)放性的感知與青少年的神入的關(guān)系。利用分層多元回歸分析檢驗(yàn)了以青少年性別與父母溝通的交互作用來(lái)預(yù)測(cè)神入的另外兩個(gè)維度〔神入性擔(dān)憂和視野的采認(rèn)〕的可能性。被試為236名年齡14-16歲的青少年。青少年的性別，母親-青少年溝通的開(kāi)放性，以及父親青少年溝通的開(kāi)放性是青少年神入性擔(dān)憂的顯著預(yù)測(cè)指標(biāo)。性別也在母親-青少年溝通的開(kāi)放性與神入性擔(dān)憂之間的關(guān)系中起著調(diào)節(jié)作用。進(jìn)一步看，母親-青少年溝通的開(kāi)放性是青少年視角采擇的強(qiáng)勢(shì)的預(yù)測(cè)因素。Thepurposeofthisstudywastoexaminehowtherelationshipbetweenadolescentperceptionsofopennessinparent-adolescentcommunicationandadolescentempathymaydifferbygenderoftherespondent.Hierarchicalmultipleregressionanalyseswereusedtotestthepossibilityofaninteractionbetweenadolescentgenderandparentcommunicationinpredictingtwoother-orienteddimensionsofempathy(empathicconcernandperspectivetaking)in236adolescentsages14to16.Genderoftheadolescent,opennessinmother-adolescentcommunication,andopennessinfather-adolescentcommunicationweresignificantpredictorsofadolescentempathicconcern.Genderalsomoderatedtherelationshipbetweenopennessinmother-adolescentcommunicationandempathicconcern.Further,opennessinmother-adolescentcommunicationwasasignificantpredictorofadolescentperspectivetaking.FocusgroupAfocusgroupisaformofqualitativeresearchinwhichagroupofpeopleareaskedabouttheirperceptions,opinions,beliefsandattitudestowardsaproduct,service,concept,advertisement,idea,orpackaging.[1]Questionsareaskedinaninteractivegroupsettingwhereparticipantsarefreetotalkwithothergroupmembers.ThefirstfocusgroupswerecreatedattheBureauofAppliedSocialResearchintheUSA,byassociatedirector,sociologistRobertK.Merton.[2]ThetermitselfwascoinedbypsychologistandmarketingexpertErnestDichter

TypesoffocusgroupsTwowayfocusgroup-onefocusgroupwatchesanotherfocusgroupanddiscussestheobservedinteractionandconclusion.Dualmoderatorfocusgroup-onemoderatorensuresthesessionprogressessmoothly,whileanotherensuresthatallthetopicsarecovered.Duelingmoderatorfocusgroup-twomoderatorsdeliberatelytakeoppositesidesontheissueunderdiscussion.Respondentmoderatorfocusgroup-oneandonlyoneoftherespondentsareaskedtoactasthemoderatortemporarily.Clientparticipantfocusgroups-oneormoreclientrepresentativesparticipateinthediscussion,eithercovertlyorovertly.Minifocusgroups-groupsarecomposedof4or5membersratherthan6to12.焦點(diǎn)小組的類型雙行焦點(diǎn)小組〔Twowayfocusgroup〕：一組觀察另一組并對(duì)結(jié)果進(jìn)行討論。雙協(xié)調(diào)員焦點(diǎn)小組〔Dualmoderatorfocusgroup〕：一名協(xié)調(diào)員負(fù)責(zé)過(guò)程順利進(jìn)行，另一名負(fù)責(zé)所有話題都得到討論。對(duì)抗焦點(diǎn)小組〔Duelingmoderatorfocusgroup〕：兩名協(xié)調(diào)員成心采取對(duì)抗立場(chǎng)?；貞?yīng)者焦點(diǎn)小組〔Respondentmoderatorfocusgroup〕：每次僅由一名回應(yīng)者暫時(shí)充當(dāng)協(xié)調(diào)員當(dāng)事人焦點(diǎn)小組〔Clientparticipantfocusgroups〕：一或多名當(dāng)事人代表秘密或公開(kāi)地參與討論微型焦點(diǎn)小組〔Minifocusgroups〕由4-5名，而不是6-12名成員組成的焦點(diǎn)小組。Thecontentandprocessofmother-adolescentcommunicationaboutsexinLatinofamilies.

西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程Eighteenfocusgroupswereconductedwith63adolescent--motherpairs;mothersandadolescentswereassignedtoseparategroups.Infamilieswithmorethanoneeligibleadolescent,theyoungesteligiblechildwasselected.Ninefocusgroupswereconductedwithmothersandninewithadolescents,withanaverageofsevenparticipantsineachgroup.西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程3個(gè)與內(nèi)容相關(guān)的主題是：〔1〕對(duì)需要等到適當(dāng)時(shí)候才性交的討論的重要性，〔2〕討論性交后果的重要性，〔3〕討論有關(guān)性交和避孕的具體方法的信息的困難。2個(gè)與過(guò)程相關(guān)的主題是：〔1〕青少年的性別如何影響了關(guān)于性的溝通，〔2〕母親的文化背景與青少年所居住的美國(guó)都市社區(qū)有明顯不同，性的溝通受到此種對(duì)照的影響。青少年焦點(diǎn)小組的數(shù)據(jù)用來(lái)驗(yàn)證從母親數(shù)據(jù)中浮現(xiàn)出來(lái)的主題，同時(shí)注意到這里有兩點(diǎn)不同。Thethreecontent-relatedthemeswere(1)theimportanceofdiscussingtheneedtowaittohavesexualintercourse,(2)theimportanceofdiscussingtheconsequencesofhavingsexualintercourse,and(3)thedifficultiesofdiscussingspecific,technicalinformationaboutsexualintercourseandcontraception.Thetwoprocess-relatedthemeswere(1)howcommunicationaboutsexisshapedbyanadolescent'sgenderand(2)howcommunicationaboutsexisaffectedbythecontrastbetweentheculturalbackgroundsofmothersandtheurbanAmericanneighborhoodsinwhichtheynowlive.Adolescents'focus-groupdatawereusedtocorroboratethethemesemergingfromthemothers'data,withdifferencesinthetwobeingnoted.西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程與內(nèi)容相關(guān)的主題：〔1〕對(duì)需要等到適當(dāng)時(shí)候才性交的討論的重要性。從2個(gè)焦點(diǎn)團(tuán)體中浮現(xiàn)出來(lái)的首要的主題是，中學(xué)的青少年應(yīng)該盡可能晚地才開(kāi)始性交。盡管大多是母親都贊同，應(yīng)該告訴青少年推遲性交，聚焦于學(xué)習(xí)，但是母親們關(guān)于推遲性交的具體說(shuō)法是不同的。母親們一致地強(qiáng)調(diào)了要求孩子完成學(xué)業(yè)的重要性，并且認(rèn)識(shí)到過(guò)早地性交會(huì)中斷孩子們的教育進(jìn)程。正如某一位母親所說(shuō)，“我告訴女兒說(shuō)，她必須管好自己，在她這個(gè)年齡這一點(diǎn)是最重要的，學(xué)習(xí)是她的首要任務(wù)，她應(yīng)該全心全意地學(xué)習(xí)，耐心地等待。〞一般而言，母親們強(qiáng)調(diào)了讓孩子知道需要推遲性交的重要性。有一位母親這樣討論她的關(guān)鍵信息，她說(shuō)“把時(shí)間花在學(xué)校上，學(xué)習(xí)并體驗(yàn)生活。〞母親們也討論了傳達(dá)推遲性交的信息的方式，以便適應(yīng)青少年不同方面的成長(zhǎng)，例如身體的和男女朋友關(guān)系的成熟。例如有一位母親說(shuō)：“我對(duì)女兒說(shuō)，你正在長(zhǎng)大，給自己一點(diǎn)時(shí)間，將來(lái)你會(huì)有男朋友的，性交并不是壞事情，但是你仍然需要長(zhǎng)大一些。〞另一位母親強(qiáng)調(diào)結(jié)婚之前都要克制，她說(shuō)，“我告訴女兒，你知道嗎，作為一個(gè)處女結(jié)婚，這是多么美好的一件事？〞但是母親們也說(shuō)，盡管他們向自己的青少年孩子強(qiáng)調(diào)了克制的高度重要性，她們?nèi)匀粨?dān)憂，他們的忠告是否會(huì)被遵循。用一位母親的話來(lái)說(shuō)便是：“如果你禁止他們從事性活動(dòng)，他們還是會(huì)我行我素，把你的話當(dāng)耳邊風(fēng)。〞Content-RelatedThemesImportanceofDiscussingtheNeedtoWait.Aprimarythemethatemergedfrombothfocusgroupswasthatmiddle-schooladolescentsshoulddelayinitiatingsexualintercourseforaslongaspossible.Thecontentofmothers'messagesaboutdelayingsexualintercoursediffered,althoughthemajorityofmothersagreedthatadolescentsshouldbetoldtodelaysexualintercourseandremainfocusedontheireducation.Mothersconsistentlystressedtheimportanceoftellingtheiradolescentstofinishschoolandrecognizedthatearlysexualbehaviorcouldinterrupttheiradolescent'seducationalprogress.Asonemotherstated,"WhatItell[mydaughter]isthatshehastotakecareofherself,nottobeintheageforanyofthat,thatshehastolearnprimarilytodedicateherselftoherstudiesandwait."Ingeneral,mothersstressedtheimportanceofconveyingtheneedtodelaysexualbehavior,withonemotherdiscussingherkeymessage,"Taketimetogotoschool,learnandexperiencelife."Mothersalsodiscussedhowtoframemessagesaboutdelayingsexualintercourseinwaysthatrecognizednormativeaspectsofadolescentdevelopment,suchasphysicalmaturationandromanticrelationships.Forinstance,onemothersaid,"Isaidtomydaughters,youaregoingtogrow,giveyourselftime,youwillhaveaboyfriend.[It]isnotabadthingtohavesexualintercoursebutyoustillneedtogrowforthat."Othermothersemphasizedabstinenceuntilmarriage,saying,"Itellmydaughter,'Youknowhowbeautifulitisforagirltomarrybeingavirgin?'"Mothersalsoindicatedthatalthoughtheystressedaprimarymessageofsexualabstinencewiththeiradolescents,theyoftenfearedtheiradvicewouldnotbefollowed.Inthewordsofonemother,"Ifyouprohibitthem[fromhaving]sex,theyarestillgoingtodoitregardless."西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程

〔2〕討論性交后果的重要性。對(duì)于我們這個(gè)焦點(diǎn)小組中的母親而言，確保青少年理解不成熟的性活動(dòng)的后果的重要性，成為談話中浮現(xiàn)出來(lái)的一個(gè)高度重要的話題。大局部母親對(duì)于討論這樣的話題都感到相對(duì)容易，這類話題涉及到性活動(dòng)要冒感染性病和艾滋病，以及意外懷孕的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。正如一位母親所說(shuō)，“我和孩子談?wù)摿撕芏嘈躁P(guān)系引起疾病的事，因?yàn)樗麄冞€是青少年，而這樣的事情是可能發(fā)生在任何人身上的。〞母親們也顯示出他們很愿意很直截了當(dāng)?shù)刈尯⒆用靼走@樣的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。正如一位母親所言簡(jiǎn)意賅地表達(dá)的：“性交活動(dòng)只延續(xù)兩三分鐘，但是它所帶來(lái)的問(wèn)題卻會(huì)伴隨你終生！〞ImportanceofDiscussingtheConsequences.Forthemothersinourfocusgroups,ensuringtheiradolescentsunderstoodtheconsequencesofprematuresexualbehavioremergedasasignificantpriority.Mostmothersexpressedrelativecomfortwithdiscussingtheconsequencesandrisksofengaginginsexualintercourse,suchasSTDs,HIV/AIDS,andunintendedpregnancy.Asonemotherstated,"Anyofthediseasesfromsexualrelationships,Italkalotaboutitbecausetheyareadolescents,andit'ssomethingthatcanhappentoanybody."Mothersalsoshowedawillingnesstobequitedirectinconveyingtheriskstotheirchild.Asonemothersuccinctlystated,"Thesexonlylaststwoorthreeminutes,buttheproblemsthatresultlastalifetime!"西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程

由于母親主要擔(dān)憂的是孩子的幸福，許多人感到有必要告訴自己的青少年孩子如何保護(hù)自己，防止性病和意外懷孕。在討論這類保護(hù)措施時(shí)，母親們最頻繁提到的是避孕套和口服避孕藥。然而有些母親也表達(dá)了擔(dān)憂討論避孕方法實(shí)際上會(huì)寬容了他們的青少年孩子的性行為。正如某個(gè)母親認(rèn)識(shí)到的，“這正是玄機(jī)所在，既要告訴他，不能這么干，當(dāng)然又要告訴他，如果他想要這么干，就要保護(hù)好自己。〞另一位母親擔(dān)憂，為孩子準(zhǔn)備好避孕套，就等于“為他的性活動(dòng)開(kāi)了路。〞有一位母親感到，讓女兒服用避孕藥，可以減輕性交帶來(lái)的某些消極后果，但是她也有類似的沖突，討論避孕這一類的事，會(huì)在無(wú)意中批準(zhǔn)了孩子的性行為。盡管存在這樣的擔(dān)憂，母親們?nèi)匀桓械?，性活潑帶?lái)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)實(shí)在太嚴(yán)重，沒(méi)法讓人不與孩子討論避孕的事。正如某一位母親所指出的，“我并不喜歡避孕套，但是我確實(shí)感到父母應(yīng)該讓孩子了解這樣的措施。〞Becausemothers'mainconcernwasfortheirchildren'swell-being,manyfeltitwasimperativetotelltheiradolescentshowtoprotectthemselvesagainstSTDsandunintendedpregnancy.Whendiscussingsuchprotection,mothersmostoftenmentionedcondomsandoralcontraceptives.However,somemothersexpressedconcernthatdiscussingcontraceptivemethodswouldimplicitlycondonetheiradolescents'sexualbehavior.Asonemotherrecognized,"Thatiswherethetrickis,tellinghimthathecannotdoit,andofcoursetell[ing]himthatifheisthinkingaboutdoingit,toprotecthimself."Anothermotherfearedthatmakingcondomsavailabletochildrenwouldbetantamountto"openingwaysforthemtohavesex."Onemotherfeltthathavingherdaughtertakeoralcontraceptivescouldalleviatesomeofthenegativeconsequencesofengaginginsexualintercourse.However,shewassimilarlyconflictedthatdiscussingthiswouldinadvertentlysanctionheradolescent'ssexualbehavior.Despitethisfear,mothersfelttherisksofbeingsexuallyactivewerefartooserioustonotdiscusscontraceptionwiththeiradolescents.Asonemotherpointedout,"I'mnotinfavorofcondoms,butIdothinkthatparentsshouldinformtheirchildren."西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程

從青少年這方面看，對(duì)于與父母討論性交的后果他們是能夠接受的。焦點(diǎn)小組中的大局部青少年都認(rèn)識(shí)到，在他們這個(gè)年齡，有一定程度的父母的指導(dǎo)是很重要的，而且他們相信父母會(huì)傳達(dá)關(guān)于克制和性病，以及懷孕風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的信息。某些青少年也相信，對(duì)性交后果的討論應(yīng)該在他們轉(zhuǎn)向性活動(dòng)之前就開(kāi)始。正如某一個(gè)青少年注意到的，討論應(yīng)該早些開(kāi)始“我認(rèn)為，教育孩子越早越好…越早越好。〞青少年們也表達(dá)了某些關(guān)于不同避孕方法和性行為風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的知識(shí)。有一個(gè)年青人談到了關(guān)于性交后果，例如懷孕和小小年級(jí)就染上疾病的擔(dān)憂。青少年關(guān)于性活潑后果的討論主要圍繞著意外懷孕，成為少年媽媽，以及更一般化地談到“陷入麻煩〞的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。有幾個(gè)青少年專門提到了感染性病和艾滋病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。有一個(gè)提到他缺乏關(guān)于艾滋病病毒〔HIV〕的知識(shí)。他說(shuō)：“好似，我沒(méi)有聽(tīng)說(shuō)過(guò)HIV.〞相比之下，另一個(gè)青少年認(rèn)識(shí)到了性活潑的健康風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，他指出“你會(huì)年級(jí)輕輕就患上致死的疾病，實(shí)際上就無(wú)法再充分享受生活。〞Fortheirpart,adolescentsreportedthattheywouldbereceptivetotalkingwiththeirmothersabouttheconsequencesofengaginginsexualintercourse.MostadolescentsinthefocusgroupsrecognizedtheimportanceofhavingsomedegreeofparentalguidanceattheirageandbelievedparentsshouldconveymessagesaboutabstinenceandtherisksofSTDsandteenagepregnancy.Someadolescentsalsobelievedthatdiscussionsabouttheconsequencesofengaginginsexualintercourseshouldstartbeforetheytransitiontosexualbehavior.Asoneadolescentnoted,discussionsshouldbeginearly:"Ithinktheearlier,thebettertoteachthekid...theearlier,thebetter."Adolescentsexpressedsomeknowledgeaboutdifferentmethodsofcontraceptionandabouttherisksofsexualbehavior.Oneyoungpersonvoicedconcernsabouttheconsequencesofhavingsexualintercourse,suchasbecomingpregnantor"sick"atanearlyage.Adolescents'discussionsabouttheconsequencesofbeingsexuallyactivecenteredprimarilyonunintendedpregnancy,becomingateenagemom,and,moregenerally,abouttherisksof"gettingintotrouble."AfewadolescentsspecificallymentionedtheriskofcontractingSTDsorHIV/AIDS.OneindicatedhislackofknowledgeaboutHIVbystating,"Like,Iain'theardofHIVornothing."Incontrast,anotheradolescentrecognizedthehealthrisksofbeingsexuallyactivewhenhepointedoutthat"youcouldgetsickataveryyoungageofadeadlydiseaseandnotreallyenjoylifetothefullest."西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程〔3〕討論有關(guān)性交和避孕的具體信息的困難。盡管母親們對(duì)于傳達(dá)克制和性交后果的信息表現(xiàn)出相對(duì)地輕松，但是當(dāng)母親們談及具體的與性交后果和節(jié)制性欲有關(guān)的信息時(shí)卻表現(xiàn)出某種困難。大局部母親都贊成說(shuō)，這樣的討論可以讓人感到不舒服，窘迫，而且對(duì)雙方來(lái)說(shuō)都是一種情緒化的體驗(yàn)。有一位母親如是說(shuō)，“我對(duì)兒子提起了這個(gè)話題，而他有時(shí)候不愿意談這樣的事，與我交談讓他感到難堪。〞有些母親感到談?wù)撔越缓捅茉惺艿搅俗璧K，因?yàn)榍嗌倌旰ε赂改傅囊尚暮退麄冴P(guān)于性行為的知識(shí)會(huì)帶來(lái)懲罰。正如某個(gè)母親所注意到的，“由于性是一個(gè)禁忌的主題…通常孩子對(duì)父母有一種敬畏，而且他們害怕懲罰。〞母親們說(shuō)，對(duì)于成認(rèn)和接受他們的孩子也許是性活潑分子，她們感到有難度。正如某一位母親所說(shuō)，“當(dāng)某個(gè)人發(fā)現(xiàn)某些事情已經(jīng)開(kāi)展到那樣的程度，這正是父母難以面對(duì)的事情。〞而且，母親們解釋說(shuō)，在與孩子討論性這類的問(wèn)題上他們所體驗(yàn)到的某些困難源于他們?cè)谄渲猩L(zhǎng)的文化是不在家里談?wù)撨@類事情的。DifficultiesDiscussingSpecificInformationaboutSexandContraception.Althoughmothersexpressedrelativeeaseincommunicatingmessagesaboutabstinenceandtheconsequencesofsexualintercourse,nearlyallmothersexpressedsomedifficultydiscussingspecific,fact-basedinformationaboutsexualintercourseandbirthcontrol.Mostmothersconcurredthathavingsuchdiscussionscouldbeanuncomfortable,embarrassing,andemotionalexperienceforbothpartiesinvolved.Asonemothersaid,"Ibringupthesubjecttomyson,andhesometimesdoesn'twantit.Hefeelsembarrassedtalkingtomeaboutit."Somemothersthoughtdiscussionsaboutsexualintercourseandcontraceptionwerehinderedbecauseadolescentsfearedpunishmentstemmingfromparentalsuspicionorknowledgeoftheirsexualbehavior.Asonemothernoted,"Since[sex]isarestrictedsubject...usuallythekidshaverespecttowardstheparents[and]theyfearpunishment."Motherssaidtheyhaddifficultyacknowledgingandacceptingthattheirchildrenmightbesexuallyactive.Asonemotherstated,"Whenonefindsoutaboutsomethingofthatmagnitude,itissomethingdifficultfortheparents."Furthermore,mothersexplainedthatsomeofthedifficultytheyexperiencedindiscussingsexwiththeirchildrenstemmedfrombeingraisedinaculturewheresexwasnotdiscussedwithintheirownfamilies.西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程與過(guò)程相關(guān)的主題：性別差異母親與孩子一般都同意，男孩與女孩都應(yīng)該得到同樣的消息和信息。然而，從焦點(diǎn)小組的數(shù)據(jù)中可以看到，實(shí)際上存在明顯的性別差異。例如，某些母親認(rèn)為，父親與兒子談，而母親與女兒談更為適宜。在父親缺席的情況下，母親在與兒子談性的問(wèn)題時(shí)認(rèn)識(shí)到，他們往往不得不承擔(dān)父親的角色。另一個(gè)與性別有關(guān)的差異聚焦于性行為的后果。母親更為擔(dān)憂的往往是女兒懷孕，而不是兒子的導(dǎo)致懷孕行為。一位母親說(shuō)，“女孩的后果更糟糕，因?yàn)檫@可能導(dǎo)致她們生孩子，而男孩可以一走了之。〞然而另一位母親提起了特別是在拉丁美洲文化中大丈夫風(fēng)氣盛行的情況下，男性青少年需要需要為他們的行動(dòng)承擔(dān)更多的責(zé)任的話題。有一位母親說(shuō)：“應(yīng)該教會(huì)男孩更好的道德…因?yàn)樵谖覀兊奈幕心腥吮唤o予更多的自由…你必須盡早開(kāi)始，教他們這樣的價(jià)值觀，這樣男孩子到了一定的年齡就不會(huì)亂搞。〞西班牙語(yǔ)裔家庭中母親-青少年關(guān)于性的溝通的內(nèi)容與過(guò)程

Process-RelatedThemesGenderDifferences.Mothersandadolescentsweregenerallyinagreementthatthesamemessagesandinformationaboutsexshouldbeconveyedtobothboysandgirls.Nonetheless,notablegenderdifferencesemergedfromthefocus-groupdata.Forinstance,somemothersbelieveditwasmoreappropriateforfatherstohavediscussionsaboutsexwiththeirsons,whereasmothersshoulddiscusssexwiththeirdaughters.Intheabsenceofafatherfigure,mothersrecognizedthattheyoftenhadtoassumethefather'srolewhenhavingdiscussionsaboutsexwiththeiradolescentsons.Anothergender-relateddifferencefocusedontheconsequencesofsexualbehavior.Motherstendedtobemoreconcernedwithpregnancyoutcomesfortheirdaughtersthanfortheirsons.Onemotherstated,"Theconsequencesforgirlsareworsebecausetheycouldcomeoutwithababywhileboyscansimplywalkaway."However,othermothersraisedtheissuethatadolescentboysneedtotakemoreresponsibilityfortheiractions,particularlygiventheprevalenceofmachismoinLatinAmericanculture.Asonemotherremarked,"Boysshouldbetaughtbettermorals...becauseinourculture,menaregivenalotoffreedom....Youhavetostartearly,teachingthesevaluessothatboysdon'tbecomepromiscuouswhentheyreachacertainage."在親子溝通中談?wù)撔栽掝}時(shí)，青少年關(guān)于性差異的討論是各不相同的。某些青少年相信，父母關(guān)于青少年性問(wèn)題的消息是因性別而不同的。具體說(shuō)，青少年認(rèn)為特別是涉及到約會(huì)和關(guān)系時(shí)，父母對(duì)男孩往往更遷就，對(duì)女孩那么更保護(hù)。有一個(gè)女孩注意到，“對(duì)女孩他們總是說(shuō)…別干那樣的事；有時(shí)候他們哪里也不讓你去，但是那些地方男孩都可以去。〞另一些青少年談起了懷孕后果對(duì)于男女孩的不同。正如某女孩所說(shuō)，男孩同女孩不一樣。這事對(duì)男孩輕松…我們就要吃苦頭了…會(huì)懷上孩子。〞某些青少年提起，由于“不同的解剖結(jié)構(gòu)，〞親子間性討論的性質(zhì)應(yīng)該是不同的，父母應(yīng)該與男孩談避孕套，和女孩談口服避孕藥。然而，焦點(diǎn)小組的另一些青少年認(rèn)為，男孩女孩都應(yīng)該意識(shí)到所有的避孕方法，而父母?jìng)鬟_(dá)給青少年的最有實(shí)際意義的消息應(yīng)該是自我控制。正如某個(gè)青少年注意到的，“這都一樣，男孩必須控制自己，戴上避孕套…女孩也一樣。他們也得控制。〞Adolescents'discussionsofgenderdifferencesinparent-childcommunicationaboutsexvaried.Someadolescentsbelievedthatparentalmessagesaboutadolescentsexualitydifferedbygender.Specifically,adolescentsthoughtparentswereoftenmorepermissivewithboysandmoreprotectivewithgirls,especiallywithregardtodatingandrelationships.Oneadolescentgirlnoted,"Tothegirlstheyalwayssay...nottodothat;sometimes,theydon'tletthemgooutanywherethattheywouldletaboygo."Otheradolescentsexpressedgenderdifferencesintermsoftheconsequencesofpregnancyforboysandgirls.Asonegirlstated,"Boysaredifferentthangirls.Ya'llboysgotiteasy....Wegetintotrouble...'causewetheoneshavingthe