氣象科技英語

氣象科技英語第1頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月3.科技英語的語法英語句子都是由詞匯按一定規(guī)律組成的，這種語言結(jié)構(gòu)的規(guī)律就是語法。學(xué)習(xí)語法有助于正確使用英語進(jìn)行寫作、說話，也有助于閱讀和理解英語文獻(xiàn)。在科技英語中常會(huì)遇到長而難懂的句子，常常需要借助于語法分析來理解它們。長句子常常是由于在主要成分上附加了許多修飾成分而構(gòu)成的。我們只要對(duì)英語的基本句型非常熟悉，就不難找出長句中的“主要成分”，然后再來處理“附加成分”，問題就容易解決了。3.1英語的基本句型英語句子是由一些基本成分構(gòu)成的，這些基本成分包括主語(S)，謂語動(dòng)詞(V)，表語(P)，賓語(O)，補(bǔ)語(C)等。根據(jù)構(gòu)成句子的基本成分的不同可以把英語句子劃分成不同的句型?？萍加⒄Z中常見的句型可分為一般句型和特殊句型兩大類。其中一般句型又可分為主動(dòng)句(謂語動(dòng)詞為主動(dòng)語態(tài))和被動(dòng)句(謂語動(dòng)詞為被動(dòng)語態(tài))兩類。下面是它們的基本格式：

第2頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月一般主動(dòng)句：主語(S)，謂語動(dòng)詞(V)，表語(P)，賓語(O)，補(bǔ)語(C)

(1)SV

例：Airmassmoves.(2)SVP

例：Meteorologyisthescienceofatmosphere.(3)SVO

例：Computerassessestheobservationaldata.(4)SVO間接O直接例：Thesungivesuslight.(5)SVOC

例：Wefinditveryuseful.一般被動(dòng)句：

(1)SV

例：Theballoonisreleased.(2)SVO

例：Asymbolisgiveneachmeteorologicalelement.(3)SVC

例：Theconditionisknownassupercooling.特殊句：

第3頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月(1)疑問句

例：Isoxygenagas?(一般疑問句)How(What，Where,When,…)doesradarwork?(特殊疑問句)(2)命令句

例：Explainit,please.(3)存在句例：Therearemanyformsofenergy.(4)省略句

例：Tstandsfortemperature,PforpressureandVforwindspeed.(5)強(qiáng)調(diào)句

例：Onlythuscanwedoitbetter.

ItwasGalileowhoinventedthermometer.

Itistheprotonsthatarepositive.(6)先行詞it結(jié)構(gòu)例：Itisnecessaryto…that…Wedeemitnecessaryto…that…(7)比較結(jié)構(gòu)

例：Themore…Themore…Thelongerthebetter第4頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月3.2長句的分析

在基本成分上附加很多修飾成分就構(gòu)成長句。一般來說，英語修飾成分有兩種，即前置修飾和后置修飾。它們分別出現(xiàn)在被修飾成分之前或之后。例如,animportantquestion(前置修飾)，somethingimportant(后置修飾)。前置修飾一般容易分析，后置修飾的分析則較麻煩。例如：Theairwhichismovingswiftlyusuallyhashighkineticenergy.Theswiftlymovingairusuallyhashighkineticenergy.上兩句中，前一句就比后一句稍麻煩些。因此句子分析的重點(diǎn)不僅在于分析修飾成分，而且主要在于分析后置修飾成分。后置修飾成分除了個(gè)別由單詞構(gòu)成外，一般是由從句、短語構(gòu)成的。能構(gòu)成修飾成分的從句和短語有：介詞短語、不定式短語、現(xiàn)在分詞和過去分詞短語、形容詞從句(定語從句)、副詞從句(狀語從句)。具體作句子分析時(shí)，可按下列步驟進(jìn)行：第5頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月(1)找出句子中的各種從句

從句一般可以憑借引導(dǎo)詞，如what,which,who,where,when,how,why等來辨認(rèn)。其中名詞從句常用的引導(dǎo)詞有that,whether,if(以上為從屬連詞)，who,which,what(以上為連接代詞)，when,where,how,why(以上為連接副詞)。形容詞從句常用的引導(dǎo)詞有who,which,that(以上為關(guān)系代詞)，when,where,why(以上為關(guān)系副詞)。副詞從句都由從屬連詞引導(dǎo)。(2)找出句中(包括從句中)的短語(介詞短語、分詞短語、不定式等)短語一般憑借介詞如of,in，…等，不定式標(biāo)志to，以及分詞詞尾ing或ed或其它不規(guī)則形式的分詞來判斷。第6頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月(3)然后，分辨這些從句或短語在句子中的作用。即判斷它們是句子中的基本成分還是修飾成分。一種分辨方法是將這個(gè)從句或短語從句子中刪去，若嚴(yán)重?fù)p害句子的基本結(jié)構(gòu)或意義，則說明它是基本成分，否則便是修飾成分。(4)將從句、短語納回到句型中去。再根據(jù)邏輯或?qū)I(yè)內(nèi)容，語言或語法要求以及上、下文來判斷它們所修飾的成分。對(duì)于后置修飾，可以通過“向前推斷”的方法來判斷。即對(duì)該修飾成分之前的第一個(gè)、第二個(gè)、第三個(gè)、……詞逐個(gè)地進(jìn)行推斷，直至找出它所修飾的詞為止。第7頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月通過上述分析過程，一般來說全句的語法結(jié)構(gòu)和意義便已清楚了。下面我們來看一個(gè)實(shí)例：Thediscoveryoftheupperairwaveasanevenmoreimportantseatofenergythantheassociatedlowlevelcyclone,followedbythetheoreticalanalystofRossby(basedonHelmholtz′svorticitytheorem)beforeWorldWarⅡ，andofsuchinvestigatorsasCharney,Eady,Fjortoft,Eliassen,Starr,Kuo,Lorenz,andPhillips,afterthewar,hasfinallyledto

theestablishmentofafairlyconsistentpictureofthelargescalemotionsoftheatmosphere,culminating終極inPhillipssuccessfulnumericalsolutionforthemainpropertiesofthegeneralcirculation(1956).在上面的長句中，主要成分是Thediscoveryhasledtotheestablishment.這是SVO結(jié)構(gòu)的一般主動(dòng)句。所有其它的介詞短語、副詞及分詞從句都是修飾主語、謂語和賓語的。像這一類的長句在《讀物選》的課文中經(jīng)?？梢?。作為練習(xí)，大家可以自己將它們找出來，進(jìn)行分析練習(xí)，這對(duì)提高對(duì)長句的閱讀理解能力是有好處的。第8頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月3METEOROLOGICALFORECASTS

NewWordsaviationn.飛行，航空issuancen.發(fā)布warningn.警報(bào)worldwidea.世界范圍的GMT(GreenwichMeanTime)格林尼治標(biāo)準(zhǔn)時(shí)間upper-aira.高空的soundingn.探測(cè)networkn.網(wǎng)狀組織watchn.監(jiān)視WWW(WorldWeatherWatch)世界天氣監(jiān)視網(wǎng)coden.v.電碼，編碼teletypev.電傳打字機(jī)telecommunicationn.無線電遠(yuǎn)程通訊GTS(globaltelecommunicationsystem)全球電(傳通)信系統(tǒng)Melbournen.(澳)墨爾本Moscown.(蘇)莫斯科redistributionn.再分發(fā)territoryn.地區(qū)，領(lǐng)域cooperatev.合作aegisn.保護(hù)undertheaegisof在……支持下operationallyad.業(yè)務(wù)上第9頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月USSR(UnionofSovietSocialistRepublics)蘇聯(lián)agencyn.代辦處，機(jī)構(gòu)EuropeanSpaceAgency歐洲空間管理站orbitern.軌道飛行器coveragen.覆蓋stripn.長帶NOAA(NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration)諾阿衛(wèi)星(美國國家海洋大氣管理局)TIROS(televisionandinfraredobservingsatellite)泰羅斯衛(wèi)星(電視紅外業(yè)務(wù)衛(wèi)星)Meteorn.流星衛(wèi)星geosynchronousa.地球同步的coveragen.覆蓋stripn.長帶NOAA(NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration)諾阿衛(wèi)星(美國國家海洋大氣管理局)TIROS(televisionandinfraredobservingsatellite)泰羅斯衛(wèi)星(電視紅外業(yè)務(wù)衛(wèi)星)Meteorn.流星衛(wèi)星geosynchronousa.地球同步的geostationarya.相對(duì)于地球靜止的

GOES(geostationaryoperationalenvironmentalsatellite)地球靜止業(yè)務(wù)環(huán)境衛(wèi)星Metosatn.梅多沙特衛(wèi)星repetitivea.重復(fù)的digitala.數(shù)字的readoutn.讀出multi-channela.多通道的microwaven.微波sensorn.感應(yīng)器DCS(datacollectionsystem)資料收集系統(tǒng)relayv.中繼buoyn.浮標(biāo)站processv.加工，處理，整理facsimilen.傳真APT(automaticpicturetransmission)自動(dòng)圖片發(fā)送第10頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月assemblev.組裝，匯編telegraphyn.電報(bào)GreatExhibition博覽會(huì)barometrica.氣壓的short-rangea.短期的extendv.延伸long-rangea.長期的revolutionizev.(使)革命化，重大改變nowcastingn.現(xiàn)時(shí)預(yù)報(bào)empiricala.經(jīng)驗(yàn)的extrapolationn.外推forecastern.預(yù)報(bào)員UnitedKingdom聯(lián)合王國routinen.常規(guī)conservationn.保守divergencen.輻散derivev.導(dǎo)出，獲得necessitatev.使…成為需要，以…為條件prognosis(prognoses)n.預(yù)測(cè)interpolationn.內(nèi)插smoothv.弄平滑,a.平滑的geopotentiala.位勢(shì)的predictionn.預(yù)報(bào)spectrala.譜的integratev.積分nestv.嵌套several-foldad.翻幾番halvev.減半MSL(meansealevel)平均海平面MOS(modeloutputstatistics)模式輸出統(tǒng)計(jì)regressionn.回歸predictorn.預(yù)報(bào)因子thunderstormn.雷暴第11頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月deficiencyn.缺乏satellite-deriveda.衛(wèi)星導(dǎo)出的imposev.強(qiáng)加parameterizev.參數(shù)化sub-gridn.次網(wǎng)格unpredictablea.不可預(yù)報(bào)的precisionn.精密，正確scattereda.分散的，稀疏的subjectivea.主觀的frame-workn.框架topographica.地形的site-specifica.定點(diǎn)的gustn.陣風(fēng)tornadon.(陸)龍卷freezinga.凍結(jié)的supplementv.補(bǔ)充arrayn.系列，數(shù)組soundern.探測(cè)器acoustica.聽覺的，聲的Doppler(radar)n.多普勒雷達(dá)insectn.昆蟲refractivea.折射的index(indices)n.指數(shù)，索引interpretationn.解釋，說明personneln.全體人員softwaren.軟件prompta.迅速的，立即行動(dòng)的，v.激勵(lì)，提醒shearn.切變downburstn.下?lián)舯┝鱬redictabilityn.可預(yù)報(bào)性第12頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月

3METEOROLOGICALFORECASTS

TextNationalMeteorologicalServicesperformavarietyofactivitiesinordertoprovideweatherforecasts.Theprincipalonesaredatacollection,thepreparationofbasicanalysesandprognosticchartsofatmosphereconditionsforusebylocalweatheroffices,thepreparationofshortandlongtermforecastsforthepublicaswellasspecialservicesforaviation,shipping,agriculturalandothercommercialandindustrialusers,andtheissuanceofsevereweatherwarnings.

第13頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月1DatasourcesThedatarequiredforforecastingandotherservicesareprovidedbyworldwidestandardsynopticreportsat00,06,12and18GMT,similarobservationsmadehourly,particularlyinsupportofnationalaviationrequirements,upperairsoundings(at00and12GMT),satellitedataandotherspecializednetworkssuchasradarstationsforsevereweather.UndertheWorldWeatherWatch(WWW)program,synopticreportsaremadeatsome4,000landstationsandby7,000ships.Thereareabout700stationsmakingupperairsoundings(temperature,pressure,humidityandwind).Thesedataaretransmittedincodevia通過

teletypeandradiolinksinregionalornationalcentersandintothehighspeedGlobalTelecommunicationsSystem(GTS)connectingWorldWeatherCentersinMelbourne,MoscowandWashingtonandelevenRegionalMeteorologicalCentersforredistribution.Some157statesandterritoriescooperateinthisactivityundertheaegis保護(hù)oftheWorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO).第14頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月MeteorologicalinformationhasbeencollectedoperationallybysatellitesoftheUnitedStatesandUSSRsince1965and,morerecently,bytheEuropeanSpaceAgency,IndiaandJapan.Therearetwogeneralcategoriesofweathersatellite：polarorbitersprovidingglobalcoveragetwiceper24hoursinorbitalstrips

帶overthepoles(suchastheUnitedStatesNOAAandTIROSseries,andtheUSSR′sMeteor)andgeosynchronoussatellites(suchastheGeostationaryOperationalEnvironmentalSatellites(GOES)andMetosat),givingrepetitive重復(fù)的(30minute)coverageofalmostonethirdoftheearth′ssurfaceinlowmiddlelatitudes.Informationontheatmosphereiscollectedasdigitaldataordirectreadoutvisibleandinfraredimagesofcloudcoverandseasurfacetemperature,butalsoincludesglobaltemperatureandmoistureprofilesthroughtheatmosphereobtainedfrommulti-channelinfraredandmicrowavesensorswhichreceiveradiationemittedfromparticularlevelsintheatmosphere.Additionally,satelliteshaveadatacollectionsystem(DCS)thatrelays中繼dataonnumerousenvironmentalvariationsfromgroundplatformsoroceanbuoystoprocessingcenters;GOEScanalsotransmitprocessedsatelliteimagesinfacsimile傳真andtheNOAApolarorbitershaveanautomaticpicturetransmission(APT)systemthatisutilizedat900stationsworldwide.第15頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月

2ForecastingModernforecastingdidnotbecomepossibleuntilweatherinformationcouldberapidlycollected,assembled組裝，匯編andprocessed.Thefirstdevelopmentcameinthemiddleofthelastcenturywiththeinventionoftelegraphy,whichpermittedimmediateanalysisofweatherdatabythedrawingofsynopticcharts.ThesewerefirstdisplayedinBritainattheGreatExhibitionof1851SequencesofweatherchangewerecorrelatedwithbarometricpressurepatternsbothinspaceandtimebysuchworkersasFitzroyandAbereroleby,butitwasnotuntillaterthattheoreticalmodelsofweathersystemsweredevised——notablytheBjerknesdepressionmodel.Forecastsareusuallyreferredtoasshort-range,medium(orextended)rangeandlong-range.Thefirsttwocanforpresentpurposesbeconsideredtogether.第16頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Short-rangeforecastingForecastingproceduresdevelopeduptothe1950swerebasedonsynopticprinciplesbut,sincethe1960s,practiceshavebeenrevolutionizedbynumericalforecastingmodelsandtheadoptionof"nowcasting"techniques.Duringthefirsthalfofthecentury,short-rangeforecastswerebasedonsynopticprinciples,empiricalrulesandextrapolationofpressurechanges.Since1955routineforecastshavebeenbasedonnumericalmodels.Thesepredicttheevolutionofphysicalprocessesintheatmospherebydeterminationsoftheconservationofmass,energyandmomentum.Thebasicprincipleisthattheriseorfallofsurfacepressureisrelatedtomassconvergenceordivergence,respectively,intheoverlyingaircolumn.第17頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Forecastpracticesinthemajornationalcentersarebasicallysimilar.Theforecastsareessentiallyderivedfromtwice-daily(00and12GMT)prognosesofatmosphericcirculation.Sincemosttechniquesarenowlargelyautomated,theanalysesofsynopticfieldsarebasedontheprevious12-hourforecastmapsasafirstguess.Threedifferentinterpolationmethodsareusedtoobtainsmoothed,grideddataontemperature,moisture,windandgeopotentialheightforthesurfaceatstandardpressurelevels(850,700,500,400,300,250,200and100mb)overtheglobe.TheNMCcurrentlyhastwobasicpredictionmodels:aspecialmodelwith(6or)12layers(fromtheboundarylayerintotheupperstratosphere),whichisintegratedforupto10days,andaregionallyapplicablenestedgridmodelwithfiner

horizontalresolution.Itshouldbenotedthattypicallythecomputertimerequiredincreasesseveral-foldwhenthegridspacingishalved減半.TheessentialforecastproductsareMSLpressure,temperatureandwindvelocityforstandardpressurelevels,1000500mbthickness,verticalmotionandmoisturecontentinthelowertroposphere,andprecipitationamounts.第18頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月ActualweatherconditionsarenowcommonlypredictedusingtheModelOutputStatistics(MOS)techniquedevelopedbytheUSNationalWeatherService.Ratherthanrelatingweathervariablestothepredictedpressure/heightpatternsandtakingaccountoffrontalmodels,forexample,aseriesofregressionequationsaredevelopedforspecificlocationsbetweenthevariableofinterestandupto10predictorscalculatedbythenumericalmodels.Weatherelementssopredictedfornumerouslocationsincludedailymaximum/minimumtemperature,12hourprobabilityofprecipitationoccurrencesandprecipitationamount,probabilityoffrozenprecipitation,thunderstormoccurrence,cloudcoverandsurfacewinds.Theseforecastsaredistributedasfacsimilemapsandtablestoweatherofficesforlocaluse.第19頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Errorsinnumericalforecastsarisefromseveralsources.Oneofthemostseriousisthelimitedaccuracyoftheinitialanalysesduetodatadeficiencies.Theaverageovertheoceansissparseandonlyaquarterofthepossibleshipreportsmaybereceivedwithin12hours;evenoverlandmorethanone-thirdofthesynopticreportsmaybedelayedbeyond6hours.However,satellitederivedinformationandaircraftreportscanhelpfillsomegapsfortheupperair.Anotherlimitationisimposedbythehorizontalandverticalresolutionofthemodelsandtheneedtoparameterizesub-gridprocessessuchascumulusconvection.Thesmall-scalenatureoftheturbulentmotionoftheatmospheremeansthatsomeweatherphenomenaarebasicallyunpredictable,forexample,thespecificlocationsofshowercellsinanunstableairmass.Greaterprecisionthatthe"showersandbrightperiods"or"scatteredshowers"oftheforecastlanguageisimpossiblewithpresenttechniques.Theprocedureforpreparingaforecastisbecomingmuchlesssubjective,althoughincomplexweathersituationstheskilloftheexperiencedforecasterstillmakesthetechniquealmostasmuchasartas

ascience.Detailedregionalorlocalpredictionscanonlybemadewithintheframeworkofthegeneralforecastsituationforthecountryanddemandthoroughknowledgeofpossibletopographicorotherlocaleffectsbytheforecaster.第20頁，課件共24頁，創(chuàng)作于2023年2月Nowcasting

Severeweatheristypicallyshort-lived(＜2hr)and,duetoitsmesoscalecharacter(＜100km),itaffectslocal/regionalareasnecessitatingsitespecificforecasts.Includedinthiscategoryarethunderstorms,gustfronts,tornadoes,highwindsespeciallyalongcoasts,overlakesandmountains,heavysnowandfreezingprecipitation.Thedevelopmentofradarnetworks,nowinstrumentsandhighspeedcommunicationlinkshasprovidedameansofissuingwarningsofsuchphenomena.Severalcountrieshaverecentlydevelopedintegratedsatelliteandradarsystemstoprovideinformationonthehorizontalandverticalextentofthunderstorms,forexample.Suchdataaresupplementedbynetworksofautomaticweatherstations(includingbuoys)thatmeasurewind,temperatureandhumidity.Inaddition,f