胡壯麟《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》第五章Meaning課件

ChapterFive

Meaning1ChapterFive

Meaning11.TheStudyofMeaningSemantics:

Themeaningofwords:LexicalsemanticsThemeaningofsentences:Propositionalmeaning,compositionalmeaningLinguisticsemanticsvs.Logicalsemantics/philosophicalsemanticsPragmatics:

Themeaningofutterances21.TheStudyofMeaningSemanti2.SemanticMeaningSemanticsisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Meaninghasbeenstudiedforthousandsofyearsbyphilosophers,logiciansandlinguists.E.g.Plato&Aristotle.32.SemanticMeaningSemanticsiLogiciansandphilosophershavetendedtoconcentrateonarestrictedrangeofsentences(typically,statements,or‘propositions’)withinasinglelanguage.Thelinguisticapproachisbroaderinscope,aimingtostudythepropertiesofmeaninginasystematicandobjectiveway,withreferencetoaswidearangeofutterancesandlanguagesaspossible.4Logiciansandphilosophershav3.ThemeaningofmeaningC.K.Ogden&I.A.Richards(1923).TheMeaningofMeaning.Johnmeanstowrite.Agreenlightmeanstogo.53.ThemeaningofmeaningC.K.Healthmeanseverything.Hislookwasfullofmeaning.6Healthmeanseverything.6Whatisthemeaningoflife?7Whatisthemeaningoflife?7Whatdoes‘capitalist’meantoyou?8Whatdoes‘capitalist’meantoWhatdoes‘cornea’mean?Thetransparent,convex,anteriorportionoftheouterfibrouscoatoftheeyeballthatcoverstheirisandthepupilandiscontinuouswiththesclera.9Whatdoes‘cornea’mean?9GeoffreyLeech(1974,1981).Semantics:TheStudyofMeaning.Seventypesofmeaning:ConceptualmeaningConnotativemeaningSocialmeaningAffectivemeaningReflectedandmeaningCollocativemeaningThematicmeaningAssociativeMeaning10GeoffreyLeech(1974,1981).S(1)ConceptualmeaningAlsocalled‘denotative’or‘cognitive’meaning.Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.11(1)ConceptualmeaningAlsocal(2)ConnotativemeaningThecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.Amultitudeofadditional,non-criterialproperties,includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties,aswellastypicalfeatures.12(2)ConnotativemeaningThecomInvolvingthe‘realworld’experienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit.Unstable:theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.Anycharacteristicofthereferent,identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively,maycontributetotheconnotativemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit.13Involvingthe‘realworld’exp1414Stepmother15Stepmother1516161717(3)SocialmeaningWhatapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.Dialect:thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass.Time:thelanguageofthe18thc.,etc.Province:languageoflaw,ofscience,ofadvertising,etc.Status:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.Modality:languageofmemoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.Singularity:thestyleofDickens,etc.18(3)SocialmeaningWhatapiecedomicile:veryformal,officialresidence:formalabode:poetichome:generalsteed:poetichorse:generalnag:slanggee-gee:babylanguage19domicile:veryformal,officiaThefiveclocksbyMartinJoosFrozenFormalConsultativeCasualIntimateFormal<>Informal20ThefiveclocksbyMartinJoos(4)AffectivemeaningReflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.You’reavicioustyrantandavillainousreprobate,andIhateyouforit!I’mterriblysorrytointerrupt,butIwonderifyouwouldbesokindastoloweryourvoicesalittle.orWillyoubeltup.21(4)AffectivemeaningReflectin‘Colorful’meaningCommendatory

tough-mindedresolute,firmshrewdchildlikewisemanmanofusualtalentportly,stout,solid,plumslender,slimDerogatory

ruthlessobstinatesly,craftychildishwiseguyfreakfleshy,fat,tubbylean,skinny,lanky,weedy,scraggy22‘Colorful’meaningCommendatory(5)ReflectedmeaningArisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Whenyouhear‘clickthemousetwice’,youthinkofGerrybeinghittwicebyTomsoyoufeelexcited.Manytabootermsareresultofthis.23(5)ReflectedmeaningArisesin(6)CollocativemeaningTheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.pretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.handsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.24(6)CollocativemeaningTheass(7)ThematicmeaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.MrsBessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrsBessieSmith.Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.25(7)ThematicmeaningWhatisco4.TheTheoryofReferenceWords→Meaning:Words‘name’or‘referto’things

--PlatonicWords→Concepts→Things:Ogden&Richardsthought/concept/imagesymbolizes

referstosymbolreferent(word)standsfor(object)264.TheTheoryofReferenceWordairplane27275.Sense‘Meaning’isnotsomekindof‘entity’separatefromlanguage.Thatwords‘havemeaning’meansonlythattheyareusedinacertainwayinasentence.Thereisno‘meaning’beyondthemeaningofindividualwordsandsentences.285.Sense‘Meaning’isnotsomeLudwigWittgenstein:‘Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage’.Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts.Reference:howlanguagereferstothisexternalworldSense:thewaypeoplerelatewordstoeachotherwithintheframeworkoftheirlanguage29LudwigWittgenstein:‘ThemeanThefamilytree舅父=‘mother’sbrother’叔叔=‘father’syoungerbrother’伯父=‘father’selderbrother’姨母=‘mother’ssister’姑母=‘father’ssister’30Thefamilytree舅父=‘mother’s6.SenseRelationsSynonymyAntonymyHyponymyGradableComplementaryConverse316.SenseRelationsSynonymyGrad6.1Synonymybuy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/underground326.1Synonymybuy/purchase326.2GradableantonymygoodbadlongshortbigsmallCanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.Canhavecomparativeforms.Canbeaskedwithhow.336.2Gradableantonymygood6.3Complementaryantonymyalive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:miss346.3Complementaryantonymyaliv6.4Converseantonymybuy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterhost:guestemployer:employee356.4Converseantonymybuy:sel6.5HyponymyInclusivenessAisincludedin/akindofB.Cf.:chairandfurniture,roseandflowerSuperordinate/hypernym:themoregeneraltermHyponym:themorespecifictermCo-hyponyms:membersofthesameclass366.5HyponymyInclusiveness36

Animal

birdfishinsectanimal

humananimal

tigerlionelephant...37Animal

birdfish7.ComponentialAnalysisHUMANman(ADULT,MALE)woman(ADULT,FEMALE)boy(NON-ADULT,MALE)girl(NON-ADULT,FEMALE)387.ComponentialAnalysisHUMAN37.1Animalwords397.1Animalwords397.2Domesticanimals407.2Domesticanimals407.3Englishmotionverbs417.3Englishmotionverbs417.4Morecomplexonesfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)xisaparentofy,andxismale.take:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxtohavey.give:CAUSE(x,(~HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxnottohavey.427.4Morecomplexonesfather:P8.Meaning&SyntacticStructureThemeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit,butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords.SNPVNP438.Meaning&SyntacticStructuThecatischasingthemouse.Themouseischasingthecat.Ihavereadthatbook.ThatbookIhaveread.ThedaughterofQueenElizabeth’ssonisthesonofQueenElizabeth’sdaughter.44Thecatischasingthemouse.48.1CompositionalityAnintegratedtheoryKatz&Fodor(1963):Thestructureofasemantictheory.A40longpaperpublishedinLanguage.“Themethoditselfisyearsoutofdatebutthedebateabouttheprincipleofcompositionalityisbynomeansover.”(Cruse,2004:77)458.1CompositionalityAnintegraTheideabehindtheprinciplewastosolvetheproblemofgeneratinggrammaticalbutmeaningless(?)sentenceslike Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.46TheideabehindtheprincipleGlobalwarmingisafact,andwhiletheword“global”makestheproblemseemsobig,youcanhelp,evenifitis

onasmallscale.Youcanstartinyourownhome,with“greenliving.”VanityFair’sVirtualGreenwebsitegivesgreatgreenideas,roombyroom.Forthekitchen,forexample,

thepeopleat

Virtual

Greensuggestasmart,cute,andeco-friendlystool,the“chiquitastool,”madeofrattanandrecycledsteel.47Globalwarmingisafact,andGreenproductGreenbuildingGreenlifeGreenguideGreenearthGreenenvironmentGreenenvironmentalmaterialsGreenenergyGreenbusinessGreenconsumptionGreeninternetserviceGreenagricultureGreenrevolutionGreenOlympicsGreeneconomics48GreenproductGreenbusiness48Accordingtotheprincipleofcompositionality,eachwordinthelexiconisequippedwithcertaincomponentsandcombinationsofwordsintosentencesmustgothroughcertainselectionrestrictionsinordertoproduceacceptablesentences.Thuswecansaycolorfulballbecause49Accordingtotheprincipleofcolorful{Adj}(Color)[aboundingincontrastorvarietyofbrightcolors]<(PhysicalObject)or(SocialActivity)>(Evaluative)[havingdistinctivecharacter,vividness,orpicturesqueness]<(AestheticObject)or(SocialActivity)>50colorful{Adj}50ball{NC}(SocialActivity)(Large)(Assembly)[forthepurposeofsocialdancing](PhysicalObject)[havingglobularshape](PhysicalObject)[solidmissileforprojectionbyengineofwar]51ball{NC}51Thenitispossibletoworkoutfourreadingsofthecombinationsofcolorandball,andfurthercombinationswithotherwords(projections)willdeterminewhichofthefouristheactualmeaninginthesentenceJohnhitthecolorfulballsandWehadacolorfulballlastnight.52Thenitispossibletoworkou8.2NoncompositionalmeaningIdioms:cannotbebuiltupasthesumofitsparts.Idiomsarephrasesderivedbymetaphorandothertypesofsemanticextension.getuponthewrongsideofthebedinthedoghousegreenwithenvykickthebucketfacethemusic

538.2NoncompositionalmeaningIdkickthebucket:which?A.Becauseshegotmad,thathenkickedabucket.B.Acartoonpainterabouttokickabucketofpaint.

C.theprocessofdying

54kickthebucket:which?A.BecaFrozenmetaphors:aclassofidiom-likeexpressionswhichmayshowsomeofthefeaturesofsyntacticfrozennesstypicalofidioms,suchasresistancetomodification,transformation,andsoon,butwhichdifferfromidiomsinanimportantrespect:theeffectofsynonymsubstitutionisnotacompletecollapseofthenon-literalreading.55Frozenmetaphors:aclassofiTheball’sinyourcourtnow.

onyoursideofthenetAcat

canlookataqueen.

mouse

anarchbishopIcanreadherlikeanopenbook.

decipherHehasonefootinthegrave.

bothfeet

tomb

oneleg

coffin56Theball’sinyourcourtIgavehimapieceofmymind.

part

conceptualsystemHedrivesmeupthewall.

forces

roompartitionHehasabeeinhisbonnetaboutit.

hornet

helmet57Igavehimapieceofmymind.8.4Collocations588.4Collocations588.5ClichésI’vemademypositionabsolutelyclear.I’vegivenanunambiguousexpositionofmyviews.It’srainingdogsandcats.Hearrivedsafeandsound.598.5ClichésI’vemademypositi8.6Nouncompoundspocketknife:knifethatcanbecarriedinthepocketkitchenknife:knifeforuseinthekitchenmeatknife:knifeforcuttingmeattablecloth:clothusedtocoveratabledishcloth:clothusedtowipedishes608.6Nouncompoundspocketknife8.7“Activezones”aredhat:wholehatisredaredbook:outsidecoversareredaredapple:asignificantportionofouterskinisredayellowpeach:innerfleshisyellowapinkgrapefruit:innerfleshispink618.7“Activezones”aredhat:waredtrafficsign:symbolsonlyareredaredpencil:(1)redonoutside;(2)writesredredeyes:‘white’ofeyesisredblueeyes:irisisblue62aredtrafficsign:symbolson9.PropositionalLogicTruthcondition:conditionswhichmustholdforthesentencetobeusedtomakeatruestatement(atleastifitisusedliterally).Thus,beforewecantruthfullysay,onsomeoccasion,Thecatisonthemat,theremustbesomerelevantfelineoccupyingaspecificpositionrelativetoanappropriateitemoffloorcovering.

639.PropositionalLogicTruthcoThoseaspectsofthemeaningofasentencewhichdetermineitstruthconditionsarecollectivelyknownasthepropositionalcontentofthesentence.Twosentenceswithidenticalpropositionalcontentwillyieldstatementswiththesametruthvaluesonalloccasionsofuse,asforinstance,JohncaressedMaryandMarywascaressedbyJohn.Bythesametoken,if