自學(xué)考試英美國(guó)家概況115132第七章

自學(xué)考試英美國(guó)家概況115132第七章資料僅供參考Chapter'7GovernentandAministrationTheUnitedKingdomisaconstitutionalmonarchy:theheadofStateisakingoraqueen.Inpractice,theSovereignreigns,butnotrule:theUnitedKingdomisgoverned,inthenameofthe.dSovereign,'byHisorHerMajesty'sGovernment-abodyofMinis-terswhoaretheleadingmembersofwhicheverpoliticalpartytheelectoratehasvotedintooffice,andwhoareresponsibletoParlia-ment.Thesystemofparliamentarygovernmentisnotbasedonawrittenconstitution.ThereisnowrittenconstitutionintheUnitedKing-?.dom,thatis,unliketheconstiutionsofmostothercountries,theBritishconstitutionisnotsetoutinanysingledocument.,Itismadeupofstatutelaw,commonlaw-andconventions(Conventionsarerulesandpracticeswhicharenotlegallyenforceablebutwhichareregardedasindispensabletotheworkingofgovernment).TheJudi-ciarydeterminescommonlawandinterpretsstat'utes.I.Chapter'7GovernentandAministrationTheUnitedKingdomisaconstitutionalmonarchy:theheadofStateisakingoraqueen.Inpractice,theSovereignreigns,butnotrule:theUnitedKingdomisgoverned,inthenameofthe.dSovereign,'byHisorHerMajesty'sGovernment-abodyofMinis-terswhoaretheleadingmembersofwhicheverpoliticalpartytheelectoratehasvotedintooffice,andwhoareresponsibletoParlia-ment.Thesystemofparliamentarygovernmentisnotbasedonawrittenconstitution.ThereisnowrittenconstitutionintheUnitedKing-?.dom,thatis,unliketheconstiutionsofmostothercountries,theBritishconstitutionisnotsetoutinanysingledocument.,Itismadeupofstatutelaw,commonlaw-andconventions(Conventionsarerulesandpracticeswhicharenotlegallyenforceablebutwhichareregardedasindispensabletotheworkingofgovernment).TheJudi-ciarydeterminescommonlawandinterpretsstat'utes.I.TheMonarchyThemonarchyistheoldestinstitutionofgovernment,goingback?.toatleastthe9thcentury.Thecontinuityofthemonarchy,whichhashadonlyafewchangesinthedirectlineofsuccessioninthepast1,000years,hasbeenbrokenonlyoncewhen,between1649and11316609arepublicwasestablished.Althoughthemonarchyhassur-vived,itseemsthatithasnorealpowertoday-ThepresentSovereign,QueenElizabethII,wasbornonApril21,1926-wasmarriedtothePrincePhilip,theDukeofEdin-burgh,onNovember20,1947;cametothethroneonFebruary6,1952;andwascrownedonJune2,1953.HertitleintheUnit-edKingdomis:''ElizabeththeSecond,bytheGraceofGodoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandandofHerOtherRealmsandTerritories,Queen,HeadoftheCommon-wealth,DefenderoftheFaith".IntheChannelIslandsandtheIsleofMantheQueenisrepresentedbyaLieutenant-Governor.AlthoughtheseatofthemonarchyisinBritain,theQueenisalsoheadofstateofanumberofCommonwealthstatessuchasAustralia,Canada,andNewZealand.IneachsuchstatetheQueenisrepre-sented.byaGovernor-General,appointedbyherontheadviceoftheministersofthecountryconcernedandcompletelyindependentoftheBritishGovernment.InBritishdependentterritoriestheQueenisusuallyrepresentedbygovernors,whoareresponsibletotheBritishGovernmentfortheadministration'ofthecountriescon-16609arepublicwasestablished.Althoughthemonarchyhassur-vived,itseemsthatithasnorealpowertoday-ThepresentSovereign,QueenElizabethII,wasbornonApril21,1926-wasmarriedtothePrincePhilip,theDukeofEdin-burgh,onNovember20,1947;cametothethroneonFebruary6,1952;andwascrownedonJune2,1953.HertitleintheUnit-edKingdomis:''ElizabeththeSecond,bytheGraceofGodoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandandofHerOtherRealmsandTerritories,Queen,HeadoftheCommon-wealth,DefenderoftheFaith".IntheChannelIslandsandtheIsleofMantheQueenisrepresentedbyaLieutenant-Governor.AlthoughtheseatofthemonarchyisinBritain,theQueenisalsoheadofstateofanumberofCommonwealthstatessuchasAustralia,Canada,andNewZealand.IneachsuchstatetheQueenisrepre-sented.byaGovernor-General,appointedbyherontheadviceoftheministersofthecountryconcernedandcompletelyindependentoftheBritishGovernment.InBritishdependentterritoriestheQueenisusuallyrepresentedbygovernors,whoareresponsibletotheBritishGovernmentfortheadministration'ofthecountriescon-cerned..fromcommonlawrulesofdescent.Succession,isfoundedontheThetitletotheCrownisderivedpartlyfromstatuteandpartlyhereditaryprinciple.SonsoftheSDvereignhaveprecedenceoverdaughtersinsucceedingtothethrone.Whenadaughtersucceeds,shebecomesQueenRegnant,andhasthesamepowersasaking.Theconsortofaking(i.e.theking'swife)takesherhusband'srankandstyle,becomingQueen.UndertheActofSettlementof1700,whichformedpartoftheRevolutionSettlementfollowingtheeventsof1688,onlyProtestantdescendantsofagranddaughterof114..tress;ofHanover)areeligibletosucceed.TheorderofsuccessioncanbealteredonlybycommonconsentofthecountriesoftheCom-monwealth.TheSovereignsucceedstothethroneassoonashisorherprede--Theceremonytakesplacecessordies:thereisnointerregnurn.Heorsheisatoncepro-claimedatanAccessionCouncil.TheSovereign'scoronationfollowstheaccessionafteraconvenientinterval.atWestminsterAbbeyinLondon.TheeldestsonofQueenElizabeth11-PrinceCharles,PrinceofWales-istheheirtothethr6ne.ButwhenPrinceCharlesandPrincessDianaweredivorced,manypeoplesuggestedthatheshouldstandasidefromthesuccessioninfavourofhiseldestson,William.Prince.TheQueenisthesymbolofthewholenation.Inlaw,sheisheadoftheexecutive,anintegralpartofthelegislature,headofthejudiciary,thecommander-in-chiefofallthearmedforcesofthe"Crownandthesupremegovernor"oftheestablishedChurchofEngland.AsheadofState,theQueenisinformedandconsultedoneveryaspectofnationallife.Ontheadvice.ofherMinisters,sheperformscertainimportantactsofgovernment.Theseincludesum-.momng,proroguing(discontiriuinguntilthenextsessionwithoutdissolution)anddissolvingParliament,andgivingRoyalAssenttoBillspassedbyParliament.TheQueenalsoformallyappointsmanyimportantofficeholders,includinggovernmentministers,judges,officersinthearmedforces,governors,diplomats,bishopsandsomeotherseniorclergyoftheChurchofEngland.Sheisalsoin-volvedinpardoningpeopleconvictedofcrimes,andinconferringpeeraknighthood'sandotherhonours.Animportantfunction..tress;ofHanover)areeligibletosucceed.TheorderofsuccessioncanbealteredonlybycommonconsentofthecountriesoftheCom-monwealth.TheSovereignsucceedstothethroneassoonashisorherprede--Theceremonytakesplacecessordies:thereisnointerregnurn.Heorsheisatoncepro-claimedatanAccessionCouncil.TheSovereign'scoronationfollowstheaccessionafteraconvenientinterval.atWestminsterAbbeyinLondon.TheeldestsonofQueenElizabeth11-PrinceCharles,PrinceofWales-istheheirtothethr6ne.ButwhenPrinceCharlesandPrincessDianaweredivorced,manypeoplesuggestedthatheshouldstandasidefromthesuccessioninfavourofhiseldestson,William.Prince.TheQueenisthesymbolofthewholenation.Inlaw,sheisheadoftheexecutive,anintegralpartofthelegislature,headofthejudiciary,thecommander-in-chiefofallthearmedforcesofthe"Crownandthesupremegovernor"oftheestablishedChurchofEngland.AsheadofState,theQueenisinformedandconsultedoneveryaspectofnationallife.Ontheadvice.ofherMinisters,sheperformscertainimportantactsofgovernment.Theseincludesum-.momng,proroguing(discontiriuinguntilthenextsessionwithoutdissolution)anddissolvingParliament,andgivingRoyalAssenttoBillspassedbyParliament.TheQueenalsoformallyappointsmanyimportantofficeholders,includinggovernmentministers,judges,officersinthearmedforces,governors,diplomats,bishopsandsomeotherseniorclergyoftheChurchofEngland.Sheisalsoin-volvedinpardoningpeopleconvictedofcrimes,andinconferringpeeraknighthood'sandotherhonours.Animportantfunction115......------...-...isappointingthePrimeMinister.IninternationalaffairstheQueen,asheadofState,hasthepowertodeclarewarandmakepeace,torecognizeforeignstatesandgovernments,toconcludetreatiesandtoannexor~edeterritory.AsheadofState,theQueenmustbeinformedandconsultedoneveryaspectofnationallife,andshemustshowcompleteimpartiality.TheQueenisthecentreofmuchofthenation'sceremonialand,-byancienttradition,theleaderofsociety.Royalmarriagesandroyalfuneralsaremarkedbypublicceremony,andtheSovereign'sbirthdayisofficiallycelebratedinJunebyTroopingtheColouronHorseGuardsParade.StatebanquetstakeplacewhenaforeignmonarchorheadofStatevisitsBritain;ceremoniesareheldat.bestowhonours;androyalprocessionsaddsignificancetosuchocca-BuckinghamPalaceandthePalaceofHolyroodhouseinScotlandtosionsasthestateopeningofParliament.EachyeartheQueenandothermembersoftheroyalfamilyvisitmanypartsoftheUnitedKingdomtoinauguratescientific,indus-trial,artisticandcharitableworksofnationalimportance.TheQueenpaysstatevisitstoforeigngovernments,accompaniedbytheDukeofEdinburgh.Shealsoundertakestoursofothercountriesin?.isappointingthePrimeMinister.IninternationalaffairstheQueen,asheadofState,hasthepowertodeclarewarandmakepeace,torecognizeforeignstatesandgovernments,toconcludetreatiesandtoannexor~edeterritory.AsheadofState,theQueenmustbeinformedandconsultedoneveryaspectofnationallife,andshemustshowcompleteimpartiality.TheQueenisthecentreofmuchofthenation'sceremonialand,-byancienttradition,theleaderofsociety.Royalmarriagesandroyalfuneralsaremarkedbypublicceremony,andtheSovereign'sbirthdayisofficiallycelebratedinJunebyTroopingtheColouronHorseGuardsParade.StatebanquetstakeplacewhenaforeignmonarchorheadofStatevisitsBritain;ceremoniesareheldat.bestowhonours;androyalprocessionsaddsignificancetosuchocca-BuckinghamPalaceandthePalaceofHolyroodhouseinScotlandtosionsasthestateopeningofParliament.EachyeartheQueenandothermembersoftheroyalfamilyvisitmanypartsoftheUnitedKingdomtoinauguratescientific,indus-trial,artisticandcharitableworksofnationalimportance.TheQueenpaysstatevisitstoforeigngovernments,accompaniedbytheDukeofEdinburgh.Shealsoundertakestoursofothercountriesin?.theCommonwealth(ofwhichtheQueenisthehead).TheexpenditureansingfromthepublicdutiesoftheQueenismet.bytheCivilList(anannualgrant)andbygovermentdepartments(whichmeetthecostof,forexample,theRoyalYachtBritanniaandtheaircraftoftheQueen'sFlight).Allsuchexpenditureisap-provedbyParliament.In1991CivilListpaymentswerefixedat Z7.8millionayearfortenyears.Abouttbree-quartersoftheQueen'sCivilListprovisionisrequiredtocovertheexpenditureonthesalariesandexpensesoftheRoyalHousehold.TheQueen'spri-116.vateexpenditureasSovereignismetfromthePrivyPurse,whichisfinancedmainlyfromtherevenueoftheDuchyofLancaster(whichcomprisessome52,000acres,mostlyoffarmlandandmoorland;andisaninheritancewhichhasalwaysbeenenjoyedbythereigningSovereignsince1399).herexpenditureasaprivateindividualismetfromherownpersonalresources.SinceApril,1993,theQueenhaspaidincometaxonallherper-sonalincomeandonthatpartofthePrivyPurseincomewhichisusedforprivatepurposes.TheQueenalsopaystaxonanyrealizedcapitalgainsonherprivateinvestmentsandontheprivatepropor-tionofassetsinthePrivyPurse.R-Parliament.TheUnitedKingdomisaunitary,notafederal,State.AllfourcountriesofthekingdomarerepresentedintheParliamentatWest-minster(London).Thetermparliamentoriginallymeantameetingforparleyordiscussion.ParliamentconsistsoftheSovereign,theHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.Thethreeelementsmeettogetheronlyonoccasionsofsymbolicsignifi-cancesuchasthestateopeningofParliament,whentheCommons.vateexpenditureasSovereignismetfromthePrivyPurse,whichisfinancedmainlyfromtherevenueoftheDuchyofLancaster(whichcomprisessome52,000acres,mostlyoffarmlandandmoorland;andisaninheritancewhichhasalwaysbeenenjoyedbythereigningSovereignsince1399).herexpenditureasaprivateindividualismetfromherownpersonalresources.SinceApril,1993,theQueenhaspaidincometaxonallherper-sonalincomeandonthatpartofthePrivyPurseincomewhichisusedforprivatepurposes.TheQueenalsopaystaxonanyrealizedcapitalgainsonherprivateinvestmentsandontheprivatepropor-tionofassetsinthePrivyPurse.R-Parliament.TheUnitedKingdomisaunitary,notafederal,State.AllfourcountriesofthekingdomarerepresentedintheParliamentatWest-minster(London).Thetermparliamentoriginallymeantameetingforparleyordiscussion.ParliamentconsistsoftheSovereign,theHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.Thethreeelementsmeettogetheronlyonoccasionsofsymbolicsignifi-cancesuchasthestateopeningofParliament,whentheCommonsaresummonedbytheQueentotheHouseofLords. ThemainfunctionsofParliamentare:(1)topasslaws;(2)toprovide,byvotingfortaxation,themeansofcarryingontheworkofgovernment;(3)toexaminegovernmentpolicyandadministra-tion,includingproposalsforexpenditure;and(4)todebatethemajorissuesoftheday..AParliamenthasamaximumdurationoffiveyears,butinprac-ticegeneralelectionsareusuallyheldbeforetheendofthisterm.117ThelifeofaParliamentisdividedintosessions.Eachu~uallylastsforoneyear-normallybeginningandendinginOctoberorNovern-ber.Thereareadjournments''atnight,atweekends,atChrist-mas,EasterandthelateSpringBankHoliday,andduringalongsununerbreakusuallystartinginlateJuly.TheSovereignformallysummonsanddissolvesParliamentandgenerallyopenseachnewannualsessionwithaspeechfromthethrone.TheHousesofParliamentwererebuiltbetween1835and1857af-terhavingbeendestroyedbyfireandweredesignedbySirCharlesBarryonaclassicalplanwithGothicdetailingbyAugustusWelbyPugin.ThepublicareadmittedtotheStranger'sGalleriesintheHouseofLords(2-30pmMon,TuesandWed,3pm,Thur,11amFri)andtheHouseofCommons(4:30pmMon-Thur,9:30amFri)-1.TheHomofLordsTheHouseofLordsismadeupoftheLordsSpiritualandtheLordsTemporal.TheLordsSpiritualaretheArchbishopsofCan-.terburyandYorkand24seniorbishopsoftheChurchofEngland.TheLordsTemporalconsistof(1)allhereditarypeersandpeeress-esofEngland,Scotland,GreatBritainandtheUnitedKingdom(butnotpeersofIreland)(2)lifepeerscreatedtoassisttheHouseinitsjudicialduties(LordsofAppealorlawlord'');and.tobringthewideexperienceofitsmembersintotheprocessof-law-(3allotherlifepeers.ThemainfunctionoftheHouseofLordsismaking.Inotherwords,thenon-electedHouseistoactasacham-ThelifeofaParliamentisdividedintosessions.Eachu~uallylastsforoneyear-normallybeginningandendinginOctoberorNovern-ber.Thereareadjournments''atnight,atweekends,atChrist-mas,EasterandthelateSpringBankHoliday,andduringalongsununerbreakusuallystartinginlateJuly.TheSovereignformallysummonsanddissolvesParliamentandgenerallyopenseachnewannualsessionwithaspeechfromthethrone.TheHousesofParliamentwererebuiltbetween1835and1857af-terhavingbeendestroyedbyfireandweredesignedbySirCharlesBarryonaclassicalplanwithGothicdetailingbyAugustusWelbyPugin.ThepublicareadmittedtotheStranger'sGalleriesintheHouseofLords(2-30pmMon,TuesandWed,3pm,Thur,11amFri)andtheHouseofCommons(4:30pmMon-Thur,9:30amFri)-1.TheHomofLordsTheHouseofLordsismadeupoftheLordsSpiritualandtheLordsTemporal.TheLordsSpiritualaretheArchbishopsofCan-.terburyandYorkand24seniorbishopsoftheChurchofEngland.TheLordsTemporalconsistof(1)allhereditarypeersandpeeress-esofEngland,Scotland,GreatBritainandtheUnitedKingdom(butnotpeersofIreland)(2)lifepeerscreatedtoassisttheHouseinitsjudicialduties(LordsofAppealorlawlord'');and.tobringthewideexperienceofitsmembersintotheprocessof-law-(3allotherlifepeers.ThemainfunctionoftheHouseofLordsismaking.Inotherwords,thenon-electedHouseistoactasacham-berofrevision,complementingbutnotrivallingtheelectedHouse.ThepotentialmembershipoftheHouseofLordsisabout1,200.Inmid-1994therewere1,198membersoftheHouseofLords.118... A=rsWhoattendtheHouse(theaveragedailyattendanceissome380)receivenosalaryfortheirparliamentarywork,butcanclaim?.expenses.TheministersoftheHouseofLordsaresalariedmem-forexpensesincuredinattendingtheHouseandcertaintravelling?.bers.SalariesrangefromL38,894forjuniorministerstoi52,260forCabinetministers.TheHouseispresidedoverbythe-LordChancellor,whotakeshisplaceonthewoolsack(aseatintheformofalargecushion,stuffedwithwoolfromseveralCommon-wealthcountries)asex-officioSpeakeroftheHouse.TheClerkoftheParliamentsisresponsiblefortherecordsofproceedingsoftheHouseofLordsandforthetextofActsofParliament.Heistheac-countingofficerforthecostoftheHouse,andisinchargeoftheadministrativestaffoftheHouse,knownastheParliamentOffice.TheGentlemanUsheroftheBlackRod,usuallyknownas''BlackRod".9isresponsibleforsecurity,accommodation'andservicesintheHouseofLords'partofthePalaceofWestminster.2-TheHouseofCoonsTheHouseofCommonsiselectedbyuniversaladultsuffrageandconsistsof651MembersofParliament(MPs).Inmid-1994therewere60women,threeAsianandthreeblackMPs.0*the651seats,524areforEngland,38for-Wales,72forScotland,and17forNorthernIreland.Eachmemberrepresentsanarea(orcon-stituency),andholdshisseatduringthelifeofaParliament.ItisintheHouseofCommonsthattheultimateauthorityforlaw-makingresides.(1)ParliamentaryElectoralSystemA=rsWhoattendtheHouse(theaveragedailyattendanceissome380)receivenosalaryfortheirparliamentarywork,butcanclaim?.expenses.TheministersoftheHouseofLordsaresalariedmem-forexpensesincuredinattendingtheHouseandcertaintravelling?.bers.SalariesrangefromL38,894forjuniorministerstoi52,260forCabinetministers.TheHouseispresidedoverbythe-LordChancellor,whotakeshisplaceonthewoolsack(aseatintheformofalargecushion,stuffedwithwoolfromseveralCommon-wealthcountries)asex-officioSpeakeroftheHouse.TheClerkoftheParliamentsisresponsiblefortherecordsofproceedingsoftheHouseofLordsandforthetextofActsofParliament.Heistheac-countingofficerforthecostoftheHouse,andisinchargeoftheadministrativestaffoftheHouse,knownastheParliamentOffice.TheGentlemanUsheroftheBlackRod,usuallyknownas''BlackRod".9isresponsibleforsecurity,accommodation'andservicesintheHouseofLords'partofthePalaceofWestminster.2-TheHouseofCoonsTheHouseofCommonsiselectedbyuniversaladultsuffrageandconsistsof651MembersofParliament(MPs).Inmid-1994therewere60women,threeAsianandthreeblackMPs.0*the651seats,524areforEngland,38for-Wales,72forScotland,and17forNorthernIreland.Eachmemberrepresentsanarea(orcon-stituency),andholdshisseatduringthelifeofaParliament.ItisintheHouseofCommonsthattheultimateauthorityforlaw-makingresides.(1)ParliamentaryElectoralSystemMembersoftheHouseofCommonsareelectedeitherataGeneral,Election,whenalltheseatsarecontested,orataby-electionheldwhenanMPdiesorresigns,orisgivenapeerage.AGeneralElec-119-...-...-tionmustbeheldeveryfiveyearsandisoftenheldatmorefrequentintervals.each ForelectoralpurposesBritainisdividedintoconstituencies,ofwhichreturnsonemembertotheHouseofCommons.Electionsarebysecretballot.Britishcitizens,togetherwithcitizensofotherCommonwealthcountriesandcitizensoftheIrishRepublicresidentinBritain,mayvoteprovidedtheyare(A)aged18orover,.(B)includedintheannualregisterofelectorsfortheconstituency,andC.(C)notsubjecttoanydisqualification.IEachelectormaycastonevote,,normallyinpersonatapollingr..station.Peopleentitledtoanabsentvotemayvotebypostorbyproxy,althoughpostalballotpaperscannotbe-senttoaddressesout-sideBritain- BritishcitizensandcitizensofotherCommonwealthcountries,togetherwithcitizensoftheIrishRepublic,maystandforelectionasMPsprovidedtheyareaged21oroverandarenotdisqualified.Acandidatemustdeposit1500,whichisreturnedifheorshere-ceives5percentormoreofthevotecast.(2)ThePoliticalPartySystemForthelast150yearsapredominantlytwo-partysystemhasex-iisted.Since1945eithertheConservativePartyortheLabourPartyhasheldpower.Anewparty-theSocialandLiberalDemocraticParty-wasformedin1988whentheLiberalPartymergedwiththeSocialDemocraticPartyformedin1981.Otherpartiesincludetwotionmustbeheldeveryfiveyearsandisoftenheldatmorefrequentintervals.each ForelectoralpurposesBritainisdividedintoconstituencies,ofwhichreturnsonemembertotheHouseofCommons.Electionsarebysecretballot.Britishcitizens,togetherwithcitizensofotherCommonwealthcountriesandcitizensoftheIrishRepublicresidentinBritain,mayvoteprovidedtheyare(A)aged18orover,.(B)includedintheannualregisterofelectorsfortheconstituency,andC.(C)notsubjecttoanydisqualification.IEachelectormaycastonevote,,normallyinpersonatapollingr..station.Peopleentitledtoanabsentvotemayvotebypostorbyproxy,althoughpostalballotpaperscannotbe-senttoaddressesout-sideBritain- BritishcitizensandcitizensofotherCommonwealthcountries,togetherwithcitizensoftheIrishRepublic,maystandforelectionasMPsprovidedtheyareaged21oroverandarenotdisqualified.Acandidatemustdeposit1500,whichisreturnedifheorshere-ceives5percentormoreofthevotecast.(2)ThePoliticalPartySystemForthelast150yearsapredominantlytwo-partysystemhasex-iisted.Since1945eithertheConservativePartyortheLabourPartyhasheldpower.Anewparty-theSocialandLiberalDemocraticParty-wasformedin1988whentheLiberalPartymergedwiththeSocialDemocraticPartyformedin1981.Otherpartiesincludetwonationalistparties,I-PlaidCymru(foundedinWalesin1925)andtheScottishNationalParty(foundedin-1934).TheGreenPartyhashadlimitedsuccess.TheCommunistPartywasfoundedbysomeMarxistgroupsonJuly21,1920.ItoncehadtwoseatsintheHouseofCommonsin1945.InNorthernIrelandtherearea120--... numberofparties.TheyincludetheUlsterUnionistParty,formedintheearlypartofthiscentury;theDemocraticUnionistParty,foundedin1971byagroupwhichbrokeawayfromtheUlsterU-9nionists-andtheSocialDemocraticandLabourParty,foundedin1970.Since1945eightgeneralelectionshavebeenwonbytheConser-I?.vativePartyandsixbytheLabourParty;thegreatmajorityof-membersoftheHouseofCommonshavebelongedtooneofthesetwoparties.TheresultsofthegeneralelectionofApril1992areasfollows:ResultsoftheApril1992GeneralElectionPartyMemberselectedNumberof%ofvotescastvotescastConservative33614,094,11641.9Labour27111,557,13434.4LiberalDemocrats205,998,44617.8PlaidCyrnru(Welsh4Nationalist)-ScottishNational31UlsterUnionist(Northern91,960,7035.9*Ireland)UlsterDemocraticUnionist3(NorthernIreland)UlsterPopularUnionistI.(NorthernIreland)SocialDemocraticandLabour4.(NorthernIreland)Total65133,610,399100.0numberofparties.TheyincludetheUlsterUnionistParty,formedintheearlypartofthiscentury;theDemocraticUnionistParty,foundedin1971byagroupwhichbrokeawayfromtheUlsterU-9nionists-andtheSocialDemocraticandLabourParty,foundedin1970.Since1945eightgeneralelectionshavebeenwonbytheConser-I?.vativePartyandsixbytheLabourParty;thegreatmajorityof-membersoftheHouseofCommonshavebelongedtooneofthesetwoparties.TheresultsofthegeneralelectionofApril1992areasfollows:ResultsoftheApril1992GeneralElectionPartyMemberselectedNumberof%ofvotescastvotescastConservative33614,094,11641.9Labour27111,557,13434.4LiberalDemocrats205,998,44617.8PlaidCyrnru(Welsh4Nationalist)-ScottishNational31UlsterUnionist(Northern91,960,7035.9*Ireland)UlsterDemocraticUnionist3(NorthernIreland)UlsterPopularUnionistI.(NorthernIreland)SocialDemocraticandLabour4.(NorthernIreland)Total65133,610,399100.0 Thesefiguresincludevotesforotherpartieswhosecandidateswereunsuccessful.Source:Britain1995(AnOfficialHandbook)121-ThepartywhichwinssufficientseatsataGeneralElectiontocommandamajorityofsupportersintheHouseofCommonsusually.formstheGovernment.Bytradition,theleaderofthemajority.partyisappointedPrimeMinisterbytheSovereign.Theleading.membersofthepartyarechosenbythePrimeMinistertofillmints-terialposts.ThepartywhichwinsthesecondlargestnumberofseatsbecomestheofficialOpposition,withitsownleaderandshadowcabinetLeadersoftheGovernmentandOppositionsitonthefrontbench-?.esoftheCommonswiththeirsupporters(thebackbenchers)sittingbehindthem.Generallyspeaking,theaimsoftheOppositionaretocontributetotheformulationofpolicyandlegislationbyconstructivecriticism,toopposegovernmentproposalsitconsidersobjectionable,toseekamendmentstogovernmentBills,andtoputforwarditsownpoli-ciesinordertoimproveitschancesofwinningthenextgeneralelec--ThepartywhichwinssufficientseatsataGeneralElectiontocommandamajorityofsupportersintheHouseofCommonsusually.formstheGovernment.Bytradition,theleaderofthemajority.pa