加強(qiáng)農(nóng)業(yè)推廣培訓(xùn)：南非本科農(nóng)業(yè)推廣課程中的工藝技能和能力差距

StrengtheningAgriculturalExtensionTraining

ProcessSkillsandCompetencyGapsinUndergraduateAgriculturalExtensionCurriculuminSouthAfrica

By

LindievonMal村tz,Kris村nDavis,MurariSuvedi,

CharityChanza,AgwuEkweAgwu,P.V.K.Sasidhar,

DimeluMabelUkamaka,SawedaLiverpool-Tasie,

IfeomaQuine?eAnugwaandFrankTchuwa

April2023

April2023

StrengtheningAgriculturalExtensionTraining

ProcessSkillsandCompetencyGapsinUndergraduateAgriculturalExtensionCurriculuminSouthAfrica

By

LindievonMaltitz

SouthAfrica?UniversityoftheFreeState

KristinDavis

SouthAfrica?InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute&UniversityofPretoria

MurariSuvedi

USA?MichiganStateUniversity

CharityChanza

Malawi?LilongweUniversityofAgricultureandNaturalResources

AgwuEkweAgwu

Nigeria?UniversityofNigeria,Nsukka

P.V.K.Sasidhar

India?IndiraGandhiNationalOpenUniversity

DimeluMabelUkamaka

Nigeria?UniversityofNigeria,Nsukka

SawedaLiverpool-Tasie

USA?MichiganStateUniversity

IfeomaQuinetteAnugwa

Nigeria?UniversityofNigeria,Nsukka

FrankTchuwa

Malawi?LilongweUniversityofAgricultureandNaturalResources

AllianceforAfricanPartnership(AAP)isaconsortiumofinstitutionssupportingworkthattransformslivesandaddressesglobalchallengesthroughsustainable,effective,andequitablelong-termcollaborationsamongAfricaninstitutions,MichiganStateUniversity,andotherinternationalpartners.

Usersarefree:

-Toshare–copy,distributeandtransmitthework.

-Tomix–toadaptthework.

Underthefollowingconditions:

-Attribution–Usersmustattributetheworktotheauthorsbutnotinanywaythatsuggeststhattheauthorsendorsetheuserortheuser’suseofthework.

Fairuseofthisreportisencouragedwithpropercitation.

RequiredCitation:VonMaltitz,L.,Davis,K.,Suvedi,M.,Chanza,C.,Agwu,A.E.,Sasidhar,P.V.K.,Dimelu,M.U.,Liverpool-Tasie,L.S.O.,Anugwa,I.Q.,andTchuwa,F.(2023).StrengtheningAgriculturalExtensionTraining:ProcessSkillsandCompetencyGapsinUndergraduateAgriculturalExtensionCurriculuminSouthAfrica.PartnershipsforInnovativeResearchinAfrica(PIRA)ResearchReport.EastLansing,Michigan,USA:AllianceforAfricanPartnership,MichiganStateUniversity.

Disclaimer:ResearchforthisreportwasfundedbyMichiganStateUniversitythroughtheAllianceforAfricanPartnership(AAP)fora2021PartnershipsforInnovativeResearchinAfrica(PIRA)grantawardatthescalinggrantfundingleveltitled‘StrengtheningAgriculturalExtensionTrainingintheMSUAllianceforAfricanPartnership(AAP)ConsortiumPartnersinAfrica’.Theviewsexpressedinthisreportarethoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarilyre?ecttheviewsorpoliciesoftheorganizationstheyrepresent.

CONTENTS

ListofTables,Boxes,andFigures v

AbbreviationsandAcronyms VII

Acknowledgements VIII

ExecutiveSummary IX

1.0INTRODUCTION

1

1.1AgricultureinSouthAfrica

1

1.2TheHistoryofAgriculturalExtensioninSouthAfrica

2

1.3OrganogramofAgriculturalExtensioninSouthAfrica

5

1.4ChallengesinAgriculturalExtensioninSouthAfrica

8

1.5StudyBackground

9

1.6Signi?canceoftheStudyandResearchQuestions

9

1.7ObjectivesoftheStudy

10

1.8OrganizationoftheReport

10

2.0THEORETICALORIENTATION:PROCESSSKILLSANDCOMPETENCYGAPSIN

AGRICULTURALEXTENSIONCURRICULA

11

2.1AgriculturalExtensionandAdvisoryServices

11

2.2OverviewofAgricultureEducationinSouthAfrica

11

2.3AgriculturalExtensionCurriculumatUndergraduateLevel

12

3.0METHODOLOGY

22

3.1StudyLocaleandSampling

22

3.2OperationalizationandMeasurementofVariables

23

3.2.1ProcessSkillsandCoreCompetencies

23

3.3AppropriateWaystoAcquireCoreCompetencies

25

3.4MajorBarrierstoEffectiveImplementationofExtensionCurriculum

26

3.5DesignandDevelopmentoftheSurveyInstrument

26

3.6DataCollectionandAnalysis

26

3.7FocusGroupDiscussions

26

3.8LimitationsoftheStudy

27

4.0RESULTSANDDISCUSSION

28

4.1DemographicsofAgriculturalExtensionProfessionals

28

4.2InstitutionalCharacteristicsoftheAgriculturalExtensionProfessionals

28

4.3ProcessSkillsandCoreCompetencies

30

4.4Additionalprocessskillsorcompetenciesneeded

43

4.5SuggestionsonMakingtheAgriculturalExtensionCurriculum

MoreRobustandPractical

43

4.6AppropriateWaystoAcquiretheCoreCompetencies

44

4.7MajorBarrierstoEffectiveImplementationofExtensionCurricula

45

4.8OutcomeofFocusGroupDiscussions

46

4.8.1Existingandrequiredskillsandcompetenciesofef?cientAEAS

46

4.8.2StumblingblocksinAEAStraining

48

4.8.3Thewayforward

50

4.9DISCUSSION

51

5.0CONCLUSIONSANDIMPLICATIONSFORPOLICY

73

5.1Findingsandrecommendations

73

REFERENCES

80

Annexure1–OnlineSurvey

84

Annexure2–FGDInstrument

102

LISTOFTABLES,BOX,ANDFIGURES

Table1.1:

Table2.1:

Table2.2:

Table2.3:

Table2.4:

Table4.1:

Table4.2:

Table4.3:

Table4.4:

Table4.5:

Table4.6:

Table4.7:

Table4.8:

Table4.9:

Distributionofpublicextensionof?cersinSouthAfricaandratiotofarmers7

Availableundergraduateagriculturalextensionquali?cationsat

higherinstitutionsinSouthAfrica13

Availablepostgraduateagriculturalextensionquali?cationsathigher

institutionsinSouthAfrica17

Institutionsthatincludeagriculturalextensionsubjectsinother

agriculturalquali?cations20

Quali?cationsofSouthAfricanagriculturalextensionpractitioners

byprovince21

DemographicsofagriculturalextensionprofessionalsinSouthAfrica28

Institutionalcharacteristicsoftheagriculturalextensionprofessionals

inSouthAfrica29

Programplanningskillsandcompetencies30

Programimplementationskillsandcompetencies31

Communicationskillsandcompetencies32

Informationandcommunication(ICTs)skillsandcompetencies33

Programmonitoringandevaluationskillsandcompetencies34

Personalandprofessionalskillsandcompetencies35

Diversityandgenderskillsandcompetencies36

Table4.10:Marketing,brokering,andvaluechaindevelopmentskillsandcompetencies37

Table4.11:Softskillsinextension38

Table4.12:Health,nutrition,andsanitationskillsandcompetencies39

Table4.13:Technicalsubjectmatterexpertise/skillsandcompetencies40

Table4.14:Summaryofprocessskillsandcorecompetenciesamongagricultural

extensionprofessionalsbothfamiliarandunfamiliarwiththeavailablecurriculum

Table4.15:Summaryofprocessskillsandcorecompetenciesamongagricultural

extensionprofessionals:thosefamiliarwiththecontentsofthecurriculaarecomparedwiththosenotfamiliarwiththecontentsofthecurricula

41

42

v

Table4.16:Suggestedstrategiesonmakingtheagriculturalextensioncurriculum

morerobustandpractical43

Table4.17:Appropriatewaystoacquirethecorecompetencies44

Table4.18:Majorbarrierstoeffectiveimplementationofextensioncurricula45

Table4.19:ContentsofB.AgricdegreeinAgriculturalExtensionattheUniversityof

Kwazulu-Natal52

Table4.20:ContentsofB.AgricdegreeinAgriculturalExtensionattheUniversity

ofFortHare56

Table4.21:ContentsofB.AgricdegreeinagriculturalextensionattheUniversityof

theFreeState63

Table4.22:ContentsofB.AgricdegreeinAgriculturalExtensionandRural

ResourceManagementattheUniversityofMpumalanga68

Table4.23:ContentsofdiplomainAgriculturalCommunityExtensionatthe

MangosuthuUniversityofTechnology69

Table4.24:ContentsofAgriculturalExtensioncourseavailableatthe

InternationalAgriculturalAcademyforAfrica70

Table5.1:“Theidealcurriculamix”74

Box4.1:Additionalprocessskillsorcompetenciesneededbyextension

professionals43

Figure1.1:Percentageofhouseholdsinvolvedinagriculturalactivitiesbyprovince

inSouthAfrica2

Figure1.2:OrganogramofagriculturalextensionandadvisoryservicesinSouthAfrica6

Figure1.3:Distributionofpublicextensionof?cers(excludingmanagers)byprovince7

Figure1.4:Therelevanceofqualityagriculturalextensioncurriculaintheprocessof

ef?cientextension9

Figure2.1:Nationalquali?cationsframeworklevelsandquali?cationtypes12

Figure2.2:Institutionalprocessofdevelopinganewdegree/quali?cationin

SouthAfrica12

vi

AES

ASSAf

BFAP

DAFF

DALRRD

ERP

FGDs

GFRAS

ICT

I3A

NELK

NGO

NQF

PCDSAICASTATSSASACNASPSAQASASAE

UG

ABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS

AgriculturalExtensionandAdvisoryServices

AcademyofScienceofSouthAfrica

BureauforFoodandAgriculturePolicy

DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheries

DepartmentofAgriculture,LandReformandRuralDevelopmentExtensionRecoveryPlan

FocusGroupDiscussions

GlobalForumforRuralAdvisoryServices

InformationandCommunicationTechnology

InternationalAgricultureAcademyforAfrica

NewExtensionistLearningKit

Non-governmentalOrganization

NationalQuali?cationsFramework

ParticipatoryCurriculumDevelopment

SouthAfricanInstitutionforCharteredAccountants

DepartmentofStatisticsSouthAfrica

SouthAfricanCouncilforNaturalScienti?cProfessions

TheSouthAfricanQuali?cationsAuthority

SouthAfricanSocietyofAgriculturalExtension

Undergraduate

vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ResearchforthisreportwasfundedbyMichiganStateUniversitythroughtheAllianceforAfricanPartnership(AAP)forthe2021PartnershipsforInnovativeResearchinAfrica(PIRA)grantawardatthescalinggrantfundingleveltitled‘StrengtheningAgriculturalExtensionTrainingintheMSUAllianceforAfricanPartnership(AAP)ConsortiumPartnersinAfrica’.WeareextremelygratefultoDr.RichardMkandawire,director,AfricaOf?ce,AAP;andDr.JoséJackson-MaleteandDr.AmyJamison,co-directors,AAP,fortheawardandadministrativehelp.WewouldliketoacknowledgethesupportfromDerekTobiasforfacilitatingthegrantmanagementandreporting.

InUSA,authorsgratefullyacknowledgethesupportreceivedfromDr.RebeccaJordan,departmentchair,andMs.AshleyLathrop,researchadministratorintheDepartmentofCommunitySustainabilityatMichiganStateUniversityfortheirsupportingrantmanagement.Mr.GangLu,doctoralcandidateintheMSUDepartmentofForestry,assistedinquantitativedataanalysis.Ms.LeslieJohnsonprovidededitorialsupportforallreportsinatimelymanner.Wegratefullyacknowledgetheirhelpandsupport.

InSouthAfrica,wethanktheintervieweesandotherswhocontributedtheirvaluableinsightsandtime.Finally,wewouldliketorememberDr.Stefanus(Fanie)Terblanché,aSouthAfricanextensionprofessionalwhowasadedicatedchampiontoextensioninSouthAfricauntilhispassingin2022.

Theauthorsaloneacceptresponsibilityforanyshortcomingorfactualerrorsinthisreport.

–Authors

viii

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

Assessmentofprocessskillsandcompetencygapsinundergraduate(UG)agriculturalextensioncurriculumcanassistindevelopingcompetency-basedcurriculawhichinturncouldenhancetheef?ciencyofagriculturalextensionandadvisoryservices(AEAS)inSouthAfrica.TheMichiganStateUniversityAllianceforAfricanPartnership(AAP)launchedamulti-countrystudytocontributetoupgradingandtailoringtheagriculturalextensioncurriculaatparticipatinginstitutions.Theresearchaimstoidentifyskillsandcompetencygapsinundergraduateagriculturalextensioncurriculaintheparticipatingcountries–Kenya,Malawi,Nigeria,SouthAfricaandUganda-andusetheresultstocontributetoformulatingappropriatecurricula.Theresearchquestionsare:

1.Doextensionprogramseffectivelyaddresstheneedsofcurrentfoodandagriculturalsystems?

2.Whatarethecriticaljobskillsandcorecompetenciesrequiredofextensionworkerstoeffectivelyplan,implement,andevaluateextensionworkintoday’schangingcontext?

3.Doestheundergraduatecurriculuminextensioneducationincludeeducationand/ortrainingonthesejobskillsorcorecompetencies?

4.Whatarethebarrierstoeffectivelytrainingextensionworkerswithrequiredcorecompetencies,andhowcanthesebarriersberemoved?

Thestudyundertakenintheaboveparticipatingcountriesassessed11processskillsandcompetencies:programplanning,programimplementation,communicationandpublicrelations,informationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs),programevaluation,personalandprofessionaldevelopment,diversityandgender,technicalsubjectmatterexpertise,marketing,brokeringandvaluechaindevelopment,softskillsandnutritionskillsandcompetencies.Thesewereassessedqualitativelyusingfocusgroupdiscussions(FGDs)andquantitativelyusinganonlinequestionnairewithtwoLikertscalebasedquestions:“Howimportantisthisskillorcompetencyforanextensionworker?”and“Howwelldoestheundergraduateextensioncurriculumcoverthiscompetency?”.

KeyFindingsfromtheQuantitativeData(OnlineSurvey):

?Themajorityoftherespondentswereintheagegroupof41-50yearsofage,48.1%oftherespondentswhoansweredthequestionweremale,50%werefemaleand1respondentchosenottorevealtheirgender.Themajority(55.8%)hadabachelor’sdegreequali?cation,28.9%hadmaster’sdegrees,and15.4%hadPh.D.degrees.

?Therespondentsconsideredalltheelevenprocessskillsandcompetenciesasimportantforanextensionworker.BasedontheirfamiliaritywiththeUGextensioncurriculum,

ix

theyalsoregardedallbutoneskillasmoderatelywellcoveredinthecurriculum.CommunicationskillsandcompetencieswasconsideredverywellcoveredintheUGextensioncurriculum.

?ThemeanscoresonthelevelofimportanceofallprocessskillsandcorecompetenciesofagriculturalextensionprofessionalsinSouthAfricaweresignificantlyhigherthantheircorrespondingmeanscoresonlevelofcoverageintheUGcourses.

?Therespondentsconsideredinternshipatvariousworkenvironmentsandprovidingopportunitiestoattendtrainings,seminars,workshops,webinars,amongothers,asveryappropriatewaystoacquirethecompetencies.Theyalsoconsideredin-servicetraining,preservicetrainingbyrevisingorupdatingthecurriculum,basicinductiontraining,andinternshipatvariousworkenvironmentsasimportant.

?ThemajorbarrierstoeffectiveimplementationoftheUGextensioncurriculaasindicatedbytherespondentsarebudgettosupportpracticallearningexperience,studentmotivationtostudyextensionandengageinpracticalextensionwork,classroomanddemonstrationfarmsorfacilities,developmentofaneffectiveextensioncurriculumandqualityfacultytoteachextensioncourses,timeconstraintsandteachermotivationtoteachrequiredprocessskillsandcompetencies,andqualitytextbooksand/ormanuals.Otherbarriersarepracticalknowledgeoftrainers,politicalappointmentsandbarriers/inappropriateprofessionalclassi?cationsfordevelopmentextensionandthelackofstable,technicallycompetentpublicextensionservicesandaccesstofarmsforexperiencetraining,amongothers.

KeyFindingsfromtheQualitativeData(FGDs):

Skillsthatweresingledoutbyparticipantasessentialincluded:

A.Technicalskills:

?In-depth,practicalproductionknowledgeextendedwithspecializationinparticularskillsrelatedtotheregionemployedin.Forexample,specializinginirrigationinanareawhereirrigationisapplied.

?Knowledgeofgeneticallymodi?edcropsandvariouscerti?cationschemes.

?Agro-processingskills.

?Theabilitytodoresearchonanapplicableproblemandshareinformationwithclients.

?Resourcemanagementskills.

?Farmengineeringknowledge.

?Knowledgeofsustainablefarmingsystems.

x

B.Facilitationandcommunicationskills

?Theabilitytocommunicatewithandfacilitateeffectivelyamongallstakeholders(farmers,privateandpublicsectors)isvital.

?Thecompetencytotransferknowledgebetweenvariousroleplayersaswellasunderstandingofotherculturesandethnicdifferences.

?TheknowledgeandabilitytouseICTswasmentionedasbecomingincreasinglyimportant,especiallygiventhechallengesoftheCOVID-19pandemicandwithrurallocationsbeingdistantandsometimesinaccessible.

C.Softskills

?Attitudessuchasaccountability,enjoymentofpeople,empathy,andpositivitywereemphasized.

?Professionalethics,criticalthinking,andproblemsolvingwereseenasveryimportant.

D.Businessmanagementandmarketingskills

?Knowledgeofvalueaddingandvaluechainmanagement.

?Financialmanagementskills.

?Theabilitytobuildfarmers’capacitytomanagetheirfarmingenterpriseseffectivelyandnotbedependentonextensionservicesforever.

?ThegeneralconsensusamongthefocusgroupswasthatthecurrentextensioncurriculainSouthAfricadonotproducecompetentAEASprofessionals.However,itwashighlightedthatthecurriculumshouldnotbeblamedforeverything.Inmanyinstances,thecurriculumissuf?cient,butitneedstobefollowedupbypracticaltrainingrelevanttothecontextsthatstudentswillworkin.Itisalsounfairtoexpectafreshgraduatetoimmediatelydispenseexpertadvice.

?Increasingthepracticalexposureofstudentsthrough?eldworkwasreiteratedbyalloftheparticipants.Itwasmentionedthatnotonlyshouldstudentsbeexposedtofarmers,buttheyshouldalsobeexposedtoallthevariousroleplayersintheagriculturalsystem,includingresearchers,?nancialinstitutions,inputsuppliers,marketers,etc.

?Thelackofregularinteractionbetweenresearchandextensioninpracticeleadstothelackoftransferofknowledgebetweenresearchersandfarmers.Respondentssuggestedthatthiscouldbeimprovedbyregularlyfacilitatingcooperationbetweentheseroleplayers.Enhancedcommunicationbetweenthetraininginstitutionsandtheemployersofextensionstaffwouldalsoresultingreateref?ciency.

xi

KeyRecommendationsforPolicyDecisions:

?Keepcurricularelevantandupdated:RegularreviewofacurriculumbyallthestakeholdersoftheprofessionisneededtoensureappropriatetrainingofAEASprofessionalstoequipthemfortheworkplace.Practicaltrainingremainsanimportantcomponentofagriculturaleducation.Educationinstitutionsmustensurethattheyhavethefacilitiestoprovidestudentswithsuf?cientexposuretoreal-lifescenarios.Iffundingisaproblem,theseinstitutionsmustconsiderformingallianceswithprivate-sectorroleplayers(agriculturalserviceproviders,farmers)whocanassistbyprovidingaccesstotheirfacilities.

?Keyroleplayersintheindustry(SouthAfricanSocietyofAgriculturalExtension,government,traininginstitutionsandfarmers)shouldconvenetocontributetoformulatingtheidealundergraduatecurriculaandprovidingcontinualfeedbackontheef?ciencythereof.

?Consistencyofcurriculaamongdifferenttraininginstitutionsiscrucial.

xii

CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTION

1.1AgricultureinSouthAfrica

Endowedwithrichnaturalresourcesandasuitableclimatefordiverseagriculture,SouthAfricaproducesvariousagriculturalproductsinthenineprovinces.TheagriculturalsectorinSouthAfricaisofsignificantimportancetothecountry’sgeneraleconomyandthefoodsecurityofitscitizens.AlthoughitscontributiontoGDPissmall,thesector’simpactliesinthelinkagetoandinfluenceonrelatedsectorssuchasmanufacturingandtransport(DepartmentofAgriculture,LandReformandRuralDevelopment(DALRRD,2021).Withpopulationstatisticsindicatinganincreasefrom45millionin2002to59millionin2020,theimportanceofawell-functioningagriculturalsectorispivotaltofoodsecurityinthecountry.

Themaincontributorstotheproducepoolinthecountryintermsofsalesarelistedinorderofimportancebelow(StatisticsSouthAfrica(StatsSA),2022;FruitSouthAfrica,2020;BureauforFoodandAgriculturePolicy(BFAP),2021):

1.Animalandanimalproducts:cattleandchickensarethemaincontributorstothelivestocksector.Chickenmeat,freshmilk,andeggscontributethemosttotheanimalproductionsector.

2.Horticulturalcropsandproducts:fruit(excludinggrapes)areasigni?cantcontributor,followedbyvegetables.InSouthAfrica,awidevarietyoffruitisproducedforthelocalandexportmarkets.Themaincontributorsareoranges,apples,lemonsandlimes,pears,softcitrus,grapefruit,andgrapes.Thesigni?cantvegetablesectorcontributorsarepotatoes,greenmaize,sweetcorn,andthentomatoes.

3.Fieldcrops:maizeisthemostsigni?cantcontributorinthissector,followedbywheat,sugarcane,andother?eldcropsincludingcotton,sun?owers,sorghum,soybeans,barley,andcanola.

Inacountrywithanof?cialunemploymentrateof35.3%(StatsSA,2022)andanunof?cialunemploymentrateof46.2%(BusinessTechSA,2022),foodsecurityisunderthreat.Manyhouseholdsturntoagriculturetosupplementtheirdiets.ThepercentagesofhouseholdsperprovinceinSouthAfricathatwereinvolvedinagriculturalactivitiesin2020aredisplayedinFigure1.1.

1

Figure1.1:PercentageofhouseholdsinvolvedinagriculturalactivitiesbyprovinceinSouthAfrica

(Source:StatsSA,2020)

TheagriculturalsectorinSouthAfricaisfacingmanychallenges.Theeffectsofclimatechangehavebecomenoticeable.Risinginputcosts,especiallytherecentdrasticfuelpriceincrease,threatenproduction’spro?tabilityandsustainability.TheCOVID-19pandemichascausedhavocinthesectorbyreducingfoodsales,reducingorstoppingactivitiesofagro-processingplantsandharborsduetolockdowns,andconstrictinggeneralproductionduetorestrictedavailabilityofcriticalmechanicalpartsandinputs(Meyeretal.,2022).

Inlightofthesecircumstances,theimportanceofaknowledgeable,ef?cientagriculturalextensionserviceinSouthAfricacannotbeoveremphasized.Extensionandadvisoryworkersaredirectlylinkedtoagriculturalproducersinruralareas.Theyareacriticallinkbetweentheproducers,government,theresearchcommunity,andcreditandinputsupplyorganizations(Roberts,2022).Extensionservicesaretaskedwithassistingcommunitiesinadaptingtochange,beittonewcircumstancesorthroughnewtechnology(Davisetal.,2021).Supportingfarmerstoenhanceproductionwhilepreservingnaturalresourcesamidclimatechangeispartoftheirrole(Davisetal.,2020).Whenoperatingef?ciently,extensionservicesplayavitalroleinpovertyalleviationandruraldevelopment(Mauluetal.,2021;HlatshwayoandWorth,2019).

ThefollowingsectionexaminesthedevelopmentofagriculturalextensionandadvisoryservicesinSouthAfricafromitsinceptiontocurrenttimes.

1.2TheHistoryofAgriculturalExtensioninSouthAfrica

TheSouthAfricanagriculturalextensionservice,comprisingsixextensionists,wasinitiatedin1