法律文章英語

精品文檔精心整理精品文檔可編輯精品文檔法律文章英語目錄：1、法律文章英語2、法律英語LessonOne:LegalSystem法律制度Background背景自從哥倫布(ChristopherColumbus)于1492年航行至美洲之后，大批歐洲人便開始擁向這片"新大陸"。不過，人們通常把第一批英國定居者(thefirstEnglishsettlers)于1607年到達(dá)弗吉尼亞(Virginia)的詹姆斯頓(Jamestown)視為美國法律制度歷史的起點(diǎn)。美國法制史可以大體上分為兩個時期，即英屬殖民地時期(thePeriodoftheEnglishColonies)和美利堅合眾國時期(thePeriodoftheUnitedStates)。雖然美國的法律制度是在英國法律傳統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)上形成和發(fā)展起來的，但是在近四百年的歷史進(jìn)程中，美國的法律制度也形成了一些不同于英國法律制度的特點(diǎn)，如公訴制度(publicprosecution)等。美國屬于普通法系(CommonLawLegalSystem)國家，其法律制度有兩個基本特點(diǎn)：其一是以分散制(decentralization)為原則；其二是以判例法(caselaw)為主體。美國除聯(lián)邦政府外，還有州政府、縣政府、市政府、鎮(zhèn)政府等等，而且這些政府都是相互獨(dú)立的，各自在其管轄范圍內(nèi)享有一定的立法權(quán)和執(zhí)法權(quán)。因此，有人說美國是"一個有許多政府的國家"(acountryofmanygovernments)；而美國的法律體系則是一個"零散的無系統(tǒng)"(fragmentalnosystem)。誠然，美國現(xiàn)在也有很多成文法(writtenlaw)或制定法(statutorylaw)，但是其法律制度仍是以判例法為主體的。換言之，"遵從前例"(staredecisis)仍然是美國司法活動中最重要的原則之一。以上兩點(diǎn)對于理解美國的法律制度具有重要意義。Text課文PartOneTheUnitedStatesisatonceaverynewnationandaveryoldnation.Itisanewnationcomparedwithmanyothercountries,anditisnew,too,inthesensethatitisconstantlybeingrenewedbytheadditionofnewelementsofpopulationandofnewStates.Butinothersensesitisold.Itistheoldestofthe"new"nations--thefirstonetobemadeoutofanOldWorldcolony.Ithastheoldestwrittenconstitution,theoldestcontinuousfederalsystem,andtheoldestpracticeofselfgovernmentofanynation.OneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofAmericasyouthisthatthewholeofitshistorybelongsintheperiodsincetheinventionoftheprintingpress.Thewholeofitshistoryis,therefore,recorded:indeed,itissafetosaythatnoothermajornationhassocomprehensivearecordofitshistoryashastheUnitedStates,foreventssuchasthosethatarelostinthelegendarypastofItalyorFranceorEnglandarepartoftheprintedrecordoftheUnitedStates.AndtheAmericanrecordisnotonlycomprehensive;itisimmense.ItembracesnotonlytherecordofthecolonialeraandoftheNationsince1776,butofthepresentfiftyStatesaswell,andtheintricatenetworkofrelationshipsbetweenStatesandNation.Thus,totakeaveryelementaryexample,thereportsoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtfillsome350volumes,andthereportsofsomeStatesarealmostequallyvoluminous:thereaderwhowantstotracethehistoryoflawinAmericaisconfrontedwithover5,000stoutvolumesoflegalcases.Noonedocument,nohandfulofdocuments,canproperlybesaidtorevealthecharacterofapeopleoroftheirgovernment.Butwhenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsstrikeaconsistentnote,overmorethanahundredyears,wehavearighttosaythatisthekeynote.Whenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsaddressthemselvesinthesameways,tothesameoverarchingproblems,wehavearighttoreadfromthemcertainconclusionswhichwecancallnationalcharacteristics.PartTwoTheAmericanlegalsystem,liketheEnglish,ismethodologicallymainlyacaselawsystem.Mostfieldsofprivatelawstillconsistprimarilyofcaselawandtheextensiveandsteadilygrowingstatutorylawcontinuestobesubjecttobindinginterpretationthroughcaselaw.KnowledgeofthecaselawmethodaswellasofthetechniqueofworkingwithcaselawthereforeisofcentralimportanceforanunderstandingofAmericanlawandlegalmethodology.TheCommonLawishistoricallythecommongenerallaw--withsupremacyoverlocallaw--whichwasdecreedbytheitinerantjudgesoftheEnglishroyalcourt.Theenforcementofaclaimpresupposedtheexistenceofaspecialformofaction,awrit,withtheresultthattheoriginalcommonlawrepresentedasystemof"actions"similartothatofclassicalRomanlaw.Ifawritexisted(in1227)aclaimcouldbeenforced;therewasnorecourseforaclaimwithoutawrit,theclaimdidnotexist.Thissystembecameinflexiblewhenthe"ProvisionsofOxford"(1258)prohibitedthecreationofnewwrits,exceptfortheflexibilitywhichthe"writuponthecase"allowedandwhichlaterledtothedevelopmentofcontractandtortlaw.Thenarrowlimitsoftheformsofactionandthelimitedrecoursetheyprovidedledtothedevelopmentofequitylawandequitycaselaw."Equity",initsgeneralmeaningofdoing"equity",decidingexaequoetbono,wasfirstgrantedbytheKing,andlaterbyhisChancelloras"keeperoftheKing'sconscience",toaffordreliefinhardshipcases.Inthefifteenthcentury,however,equitylawandequitycaselawdevelopedintoanindependentlegalsystemandjudiciary(CourtofChancery)whichcompetedwiththeordinarycommonlawcourts.Itsrulesandmaximsbecamefixedand,toadegree,inflexibleasinanylegalsystem.Specialcharacteristicsofequitylawinclude:reliefintheformofspecificperformance(incontrasttothecommonlawawardofcompensatorydamages),theinjunction(atemporaryorfinalordertodoornottodoaspecificact),thedevelopmentofsocalledmaximsofequitylawwhichpermeatedtheentirelegalsystemandinmanycasesexplaintheoriginofmodernlegalconcepts.However,equitablereliefregularlywilllieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefisinadequate.Forinstance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealpropertywillbegrantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesincetheycannotcompensatethebuyerinviewoftheuniquenessattributedtorealproperty.Asthecommonlaw,equitylawbecamepartofAmericanlaweitherthroughjudicialacceptanceorthroughexpressstatutoryprovision.Today,bothlegalsystemshavebeenmergedinmanyAmericanjurisdictions(beginningwithNewYorkin1848),withtheresultthatthereisonlyoneformofcivilsuitinthesejurisdictionsaswellasinfederalpractice.OnlyfewStatescontinuetomaintainaseparatechancerycourt.Nevertheless,thereferencetothehistoricaldevelopmentisimportantbecause,ontheonehand,itexplainstheoriginandsignificanceofmanycontemporarylegalconcepts(forinstancethedivisionoftitleinthelawofproperty)and,ontheotherhand,itisstillrelevantforthedecisionofsuchquestionswhether,forinstance,thereisarighttoatrialbyjury(onlyinthecaseofcommonlawsuits,inothercasesonlybeforethejudge).Inaddition,thedifferentiationwilldeterminewhetherthe"ordinary"commonlawreliefofdamagesappliesorwhetherthe"extraordinary"equityremedyofspecificperformanceisavailable."Caselaw"describestheentirebodyofjudgemadelawandtodayincludescommonlawandequityprecedents.Inimpreciseandconfusingusagetheterms"commonlaw"and"caselaw"areoftenusedsynonymously,withtheterm"commonlaw"inthisusageconnotingjudgemadelawingeneralascontrastedwithstatutorylaw."Caselaw"alwaysconnotesjudgemadelaw,while"commonlaw"incontrast--dependingonthemeaningintended--describeseitherthejudgemadelawincommonlawsubjectmattersor,moreextensively,alljudgemadelaw.LessonTwo：LegalProfession法律職業(yè)Background背景美國的法律職業(yè)由律師、法官、檢察官和法學(xué)教師組成。不過，這幾種人又都可以稱為"律師"(lawyer)，而且他們都可以是律師協(xié)會(Bar)成員。由此可見，美國法律職業(yè)內(nèi)部的"職業(yè)劃分"并不象中國及世界上大多數(shù)國家那樣嚴(yán)格和確定。誠然，這里有語言習(xí)慣問題，但它也在一定程度上反映了美國各種法律工作者之間人員變換的頻繁性，而且這種變換總以律師為中心。美國的法官一般都從律師中產(chǎn)生，而且他們在擔(dān)任法官期間仍可保留律師資格，只是不能從事律師業(yè)務(wù)而已。美國的檢察官與律師之間幾乎沒有任何職業(yè)差別。實際上，美國的檢察官就被稱為律師(attorney)。檢察官與律師(我們中國人所熟悉之含義上的律師)之間的區(qū)別僅在于前者受雇于政府，后者受雇于私人或自己開業(yè)；前者在刑事案件中負(fù)責(zé)公訴，后者在刑事案件中負(fù)責(zé)辯護(hù)。此外，美國的法學(xué)教師一般都是當(dāng)?shù)氐穆蓭?。美國律師之多，在世界上堪稱第一。據(jù)1984年的統(tǒng)計，美國共有649萬名律師，其與人口的比例為1∶364。美國律師多的主要原因是法律在其社會生活中起著非常重要的作用。除各種法律糾紛外，人們從生到死、從結(jié)婚到離婚、從生活到工作，往往都需要律師的幫助。有些人幾乎事事都要請教律師。誠然，這說明美國人具有很強(qiáng)的法律意識，但也說明美國的許多法律規(guī)定過于復(fù)雜。一般來說，美國人認(rèn)為到法院去解決社會生活中的法律糾紛是天經(jīng)地義的，但這并不等于說美國人喜歡打官司。例如，美國有一個流傳頗廣的諧音字謎："有一種套服無人喜歡，是什么?"(Thereisakindofsuitsthatnobodylikes.Whatisit?)回答是："打官司。"(lawsuits.)其實，美國人事事找律師也往往出于無可奈何。因此，美國的律師才得到了各種各樣、褒貶不一的外號，如："租用之槍"(hiredguns)；"訟棍"(shysters)；"職業(yè)投刀手"(professionalknifethrowers)；"限用之友"(limitedpurposefriends);"社會工程師"(socialengineers)；"社會正義之斗士"(championsforsocialjustice)等。Text課文PartOne：TheBarTheregulationofthelegalprofessionisprimarilytheconcernofthestates,eachofwhichhasitsownrequirementsforadmissiontopractice.Mostrequirethreeyearsofcollegeandalawdegree.Eachstateadministersitsownwrittenexaminationtoapplicantsforitsbar.Almostallstates,however,makeuseoftheMultistateBarExam,adaylongmultiplechoicetest,towhichthestateaddsadaylongessayexaminationemphasizingitsownlaw.Asubstantialfractionofallapplicantssucceedonthefirsttry,andmanyofthosewhofailpassonalaterattempt.Inall,overfortythousandpersonssucceedinpassingtheseexaminationseachyearand,afteraninquiryintotheircharacter,areadmittedtothebarintheirrespectivestates.Noapprenticeshipisrequiredeitherbeforeorafteradmission.Therulesforadmissiontopracticebeforethefederalcourtsvarywiththecourt,butgenerallythoseentitledtopracticebeforethehighestcourtofastatemaybeadmittedbeforethefederalcourtsuponcompliancewithminorformalities.Alawyer'spracticeisusuallyconfinedtoasinglecommunityfor,althoughalawyermaytraveltorepresentclients,oneisonlypermittedtopracticeinastatewhereonehasbeenadmitted.Itiscustomarytoretainlocalcounselformattersinotherjurisdictions.However,onewhomovestoanotherstatecanusuallybeadmittedwithoutexaminationifonehaspracticedinastatewhereonehasbeenadmittedforsometime,oftenfiveyears.Alawyermaynotonlypracticelaw,butispermittedtoengageinanyactivitythatisopentoothercitizens.Itisnotuncommonforthepracticinglawyertoserveonboardsofdirectorsofcorporateclients,toengageinbusiness,andtoparticipateactivelyinpublicaffairs.Alawyerremainsamemberofthebarevenafterbecomingajudge,anemployeeofthegovernmentorofaprivatebusinessconcern,oralawteacher,andmayreturntoprivatepracticefromtheseotheractivities.Arelativelysmallnumberoflawyersgiveuppracticeforresponsibleexecutivepositionsincommerceandindustry.ThemobilityaswellasthesenseofpublicresponsibilityintheprofessionisevidencedbythecareerofHarlanFiskeStonewhowas,atvarioustimes,asuccessfulNewYorklawyer,aprofessoranddeanoftheColumbiaSchoolofLaw,AttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates,andChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates.Thereisnoformaldivisionamonglawyersaccordingtofunction.ThedistinctionbetweenbarristersandsolicitorsfoundinEnglanddidnottakerootintheUnitedStates,andthereisnobranchoftheprofessionthathasaspecialorexclusiverighttoappearincourt,noristhereabranchthatspecializesinthepreparationoflegalinstruments.TheAmericanlawyersdomainincludesadvocacy,counselling,anddrafting.Furthermore,withinthespherebroadlydefinedasthe"practiceoflaw"thedomainisexclusiveandisnotopentoothers.Inthefieldofadvocacy,therulesarefairlyclear:anyindividualmayrepresenthimselforherselfincourtbut,withtheexceptionofafewinferiorcourts,onlyalawyermayrepresentanotherincourt.Nonlawyersare,however,authorizedtorepresentothersinformalproceedingsofajudicialnaturebeforesomeadministrativeagencies.Thelinesofdemarcationarelessclearintheareasofcounsellinganddraftingoflegalinstruments,asforexamplebetweenthepracticeoflawandthatofaccountinginthefieldoffederalincometaxation.However,thestrictapproachofmostAmericancourtsisindicatedbyadecisionofNewYorkshighestcourtthatalawyeradmittedtopracticeinaforeigncountrybutnotinNewYorkisprohibitedfromgivinglegaladvicetoclientsinNewYork,eventhoughtheadviceislimitedtothelawoftheforeigncountrywherethelawyerisadmitted.Aforeignlawyermay,however,beadmittedtothebarofoneofthestatesandmay,evenwithoutbeingadmitted,adviseanAmericanlawyerasaconsultantonforeignlaw.PartTwo：LawyersinPrivatePracticeAmongthesefifteenlawyersinpractice,nine,aclearmajority,aresinglepractitioners.Theremainingsixpracticeinlawfirms,whicharegenerallyorganizedaspartnerships.Fourorfiveofthesesixarepartnersandtheothersareassociates,atermappliedtosalariedlawyersemployedbyafirmoranotherlawyer.Thistrendtowardgrouppracticeisofrelativelyrecentorigin.Throughoutmostofthenineteenthcenturylawpracticewasgeneralratherthanspecialized,itschiefingredientwasadvocacyratherthancounsellinganddrafting,andtheprototypeoftheAmericanlawyerwasthesinglepractitioner.Markedspecializationbeganinthelatterpartofthatcenturyinthelargecitiesnearthefinancialcenters.Withthegrowthofbigbusiness,biggovernment,andbiglabor,theworkofthelawyeraccomodateditselftotheneedsofclientsforexpertcounsellinganddraftingtopreventaswellastosettledisputes.Thebestlawyerswereattractedtothisworkandleadershipofthebargravitatedtopersonswhorarelyifeverappearedincourtandwhoweresoughtafterasadvisors,planners,andnegotiators.Todaythelawyerregardsitassoundpracticetobecontinuouslyfamiliarwithclientsbusinessproblemsandtoparticipateatallstepsintheshapingoftheirpolicies.Majorbusinesstransactionsarerarelyundertakenwithoutadviceofcounsel.PartThree:HouseCounselOutofeverytwentylawyers,twoareemployedbyprivatebusinessconcerns,suchasindustrialcorporations,insurancecompanies,andbanks,usuallyashouseorcorporatecounselintheconcernslegaldepartment.Thegrowthofcorporations,thecomplexityofbusiness,andthemultitudeofproblemsposedbygovernmentregulationmakeitdesirableforsuchfirmstohaveintheiremploypersonswithlegaltrainingwho,atthesametime,areintimatelyfamiliarwiththeparticularproblemsandconditionsofthefirm.Inlargecorporationsthelegaldepartmentmaynumberonehundredormore.Thegeneralcounsel,whoheadstheoffice,isusuallyanofficerofthecompanyandmayserveonimportantpolicymakingcommitteesandperhapsevenontheboardofdirectors.Housecounselremainmembersofthebarandareentitledtoappearincourt,thoughanoutsidelawyerisoftenretainedforlitigation.However,itisthehousecounselsskillasadvisorratherthanasadvocatethatisavaluedasset.Constantlyintouchwiththeemployersproblems,housecounselisideallysituatedtopracticepreventivelawandmayalsobecalledupontoadvisethecompanyonitsbroaderobligationtothepublicandthenation.PartFour：LawyersinGovernmentAparalleldevelopmenthastakenplaceingovernmentandtwooutoftwentylawyersarenowemployeesofthefederal,state,county,andmunicipalgovernments,exclusiveofthejudiciary.Manyofthoseenteringpublicservicearerecentlawgraduateswhofindgovernmentsalariessufficientlyattractiveatthisstageoftheircareersandseekthetrainingthatsuchservicemayofferasapreludetoprivatepractice.Limitationsontopsalaries,however,discouragesomefromcontinuingwiththegovernment.Themajorityservesbyappointmentinthelegaldepartmentsofavarietyoffederalandstateagenciesandlocalentities.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofJusticealoneemploysmorethantwothousands,andtheLawDepartmentoftheCityofNewYorkmorethanfourhundreds.Othersareengagedaspublicprosecutors.Federalprosecutors,theUnitedStatesattorneysandtheirassistants,areappointedbythePresidentandaresubordinatetotheAttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates.Stateprosecutors,sometimesknownasdistrictattorneys,arecommonlyelectedbyeachcountyandarenotunderthecontrolofthestateattorneygeneral.Asarule,lawyersingovernmentaredirectlyengagedinlegalwork,sincelawtrainingisinfrequentlysoughtaspreparationforgeneralgovernmentservice.However,asmallbutimportantminoritythatconstitutesanexceptiontothisruleconsistsofthosewhohavebeenappointedtohighexecutivepositionsandthosewhohavebeenelectedtopoliticaloffice.Thoughtheparticipationoflawyersingovernmenthasdeclinedrecently,fortwocenturieslawyershavemadeuproughlyhalfoftheCongressoftheUnitedStatesandofthestategovernors.ThesefiguresbearoutthecommentofChiefJusticeStonethat,"Notraditionofourprofessionismorecherishedbylawyersthanthatofitsleadershipinpublicaffairs."LessonThree:LegalEducation法律教育Background背景美國的法律教育體制具有一個不同于世界上其他國家的特點(diǎn)，即沒有一般意義上的法學(xué)本科生。美國法學(xué)院的學(xué)生都是本科畢業(yè)生。換言之，申請入法學(xué)院學(xué)習(xí)者必須已在其他專業(yè)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)獲得了學(xué)士學(xué)位。這反映了美國人注重權(quán)利和法律的傳統(tǒng)。他們認(rèn)為，法律事務(wù)涉及人的各種權(quán)利和復(fù)雜的社會生活，因此從事法律工作的人應(yīng)該象醫(yī)生一樣，具有比從事其他職業(yè)的人更為豐富的學(xué)識和經(jīng)歷。從理論上講，在任何專業(yè)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)獲得學(xué)士學(xué)位的人都可以考法學(xué)院；但是在實踐中，法學(xué)院學(xué)生多在政治學(xué)(PoliticalScience)、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)(Economics)、刑事司法(CriminalJustice)、社會學(xué)(Sociology)、新聞學(xué)(Journalism)等學(xué)科獲有學(xué)士學(xué)位。雖然美國律師協(xié)會(ABA)對其認(rèn)可的法學(xué)院有統(tǒng)一的評估標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，但是各法學(xué)院在學(xué)位設(shè)置和課程設(shè)置上仍有很大的自主性和靈活性。一般來說，美國法學(xué)院設(shè)置的學(xué)位主要有法律博士(JD,即JurisDoctor)、法學(xué)碩士(LLM，即MasterofLaws)和法學(xué)博士(SJD，即DoctorofJuridicalScience)。法律博士學(xué)位課程是法學(xué)院的基本教育課程，猶如中國及其他國家的法學(xué)專業(yè)本科課程。法律博士學(xué)位的學(xué)制一般為三年，其第一年以必修課(RequiredCourse)為主，包括合同法(ContractLaw)、法(TortLaw)、財產(chǎn)法(PropertyLaw)、刑法(CriminalLaw)、民事訴訟(CivilProcedure)和法律文書寫作(LegalWriting)等；第二年和第三年則以選修課(ElectiveCourse)為主，學(xué)生可以根據(jù)自己的興趣和意愿從幾十門法律課程中選修若干門，但要達(dá)到學(xué)校規(guī)定的學(xué)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。法學(xué)碩士和法學(xué)博士的培養(yǎng)屬于法學(xué)院的研究生教育。攻讀法學(xué)碩士學(xué)位的人必須已經(jīng)獲得了法律博士學(xué)位或者在其他國家獲得了法學(xué)學(xué)士學(xué)位；其學(xué)制一般為一至二年；其學(xué)習(xí)方式以修課為主，而且法學(xué)院一般允許學(xué)生以增修一定學(xué)分的方式代替畢業(yè)論文。攻讀法學(xué)博士學(xué)位的人一般應(yīng)已獲得了法學(xué)碩士或法律博士學(xué)位；其學(xué)制一般為三至五年；其學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容主要為撰寫學(xué)位論文，但法學(xué)院院長或其導(dǎo)師也可能要求其選修一定課程或從事一定研究工作。法學(xué)院很少開設(shè)專門面向研究生的課程，因此研究生多與"本科生"(JD生)一起聽課。美國法學(xué)院的教授在教學(xué)過程中較重視對批判性思維(criticalthinking)方式的培養(yǎng)，且多采用案例教學(xué)法(CaseMethod)和問答式即蘇格拉底式教學(xué)法(SocraticMethod)。誠然，在美國的法學(xué)教授中亦不乏偏愛講演式教學(xué)法(LectureMethod)的"說書人"(story-teller)。Text課文In1983,over125,000lawstudentswerestudyinginmorethan170ABAaccreditedlawschoolsincludingpubliclawschoolssupportedinpartbygovernmentfunds;privatelawschoolssupportedbycontributionsfromindividualsandfoundationfunds;andlocalornationalschoolsofferingfulltimeorparttimelegalstudyprograms.Asvirtuallytheonlywaytoprepareformembershipinthelegalprofession,lawschoolsintheUnitedStatesfulfillseveralfunctionsincludingprofessionaltrainingandsocializationoffuturelawyersandscreeningandgatekeepingforentrancetotheprofession.Sincethereisnocentralinstitutionwherealllawyerspractice,theonlyinstitutionalexperiencewhichlawyershaveincommonislawschool.Thecriticismswhichrangefrom"mildtocaustic"ofthewayinwhichlawschoolshavecarriedoutthesefunctionsandofthefunctionsthemselveshavebeenpersistent,diverseandrootedinthehistoricalandpoliticaldevelopmentoftheprofession.Thesecriticismshavefocussedonthecurriculumandthedominanceofthecasemethod;thedistributionofpowerandprestigereflectedinthehierarchywithinandamongthelawschools;andtheimbalanceintermsofwomenandminoritiesinthestudentbodyandfacultyinthelawschools.PartOne：CurriculumandtheCaseMethodThetraditionalfirstyearprogramofferedinvirtuallyallAmericanlawschoolsincludescontracts,torts,property,criminallawandcivilprocedure.DuncanKennedyhasdescribedthetraditionalfirstyearcurriculumasbasicallyteachingthegroundrulesforlate19thcenturylaissezfairecapitalism.ThesecondyearandthirdyearcourseexpoundthemoderatereformistNewDealprogramandtheadministrativestructureofthemodernregulatorystate.Theperipheralsubjects,iftheyareoffered,includelegalphilosophy,legalhistory,legalprocess,andclinicaleducation,a"kindofplaygroundorfinishingschoolforlearningthesocialartofselfpresentationasalawyer".However,asnewareasofthelawcontinuetodevelopinresponsetocontemporaryissuesandproblems,somelawschoolshaveexpandedcurriculatoincludecoursesandclinicalprogramsinenvironmentallaw,housingandurbandevelopment,womensrights,healthintheworkplace,welfarerightsandconsumerprotection.Therearealsoincreasingeffortstoteachlawininterdisciplinarycontexts,drawingonotherdisciplinessuchashistory,psychology,sociology,medicine,andeconomics.Inteachingthetraditionalcurriculum,lawteachersinalmostallthelawschoolsusetosomeextentthecasemethodortheSocraticmethod.Developedinthe1870sbyChristopherColumbusLangdellattheHarvardLawSchool,thecasemethodlookedtothecommonlawasthesourceoflegalpriniciplesandfocussedontheteachingofanabstractconceptionofthelawasascience.Thelegalprincipleselicitedweretobetaughtdivorcedfromthe"grubbyworldofpractice--andalsofrompolitics,history,economics,andsocialcontexts".Thisnarrowformalisticapproachwasjustifiedonthegroundthatittaughtstudentshowtostate,analyze,evaluateandcompareconcretefactsituationsthusdevelopingtheirpowersandskillsofanalysis,reasoning,andexpression.However,thisprocessoflearning"howtothinklikealawyer"hasbeencriticizedashavinganadverseimpactbothonthestudentsandthequalityoffuturelawyering.Students,lawteachers,andothershavepointedtothealienation,anxiety,hostilityandaggressioncausedbyuseofthecasemethodorSocraticmethod.Thenarrowanddestructiveinteractionofthisdialogue,oroften"nondialogue",contributestotheimpairmentoftheabilitytocareaboutotherpeople,aprofessionalunemotionalismandcynicismonthepartoflawstudents.Anditisnotonlythelawstudentswhosufferfromthisnarrowingoftheirprofessionalselves.Theworkofalawyerinvolvescontinuouscontactswithclients,associates,otherlawyers,judges,witnesses,othersaffectedbythelaw,andinvolvesthelawyersowngoals,attitudes,performance,andsenseofsatisfaction.PartTwo：LawSchoolHierarchyDuncanKennedyhasdescribedthelawschoolsas"intenselypoliticalplaces",characterizedbya"tradeschoolmentality,theendlessattentiontotreesattheexpenseofforests."Thelawschoolsfunctionastheinstitutionfor"ideologicaltrainingforwillingserviceinthehierarchiesofthecorporatewelfarestate".Intherankingandevaluationofstudents,studentslearntoaccepttheirplaceinahierarchywhichispresentedasjustandinevitableand"sopreparethemselvesforallthehierarchiestofollow".Inthelawteachersmodelingofhierarchicalrelationshipswithstudents,colleagues,secretariesandsupportstaff,studentslearnaparticularstyleofcondescensiontowardsperceivedinferiorsanddeferencetowardsperceivedsuperiors.Andunderthesubtlebutintensepressuretoconformtothe"white,male,middleclasstone"setbylawfacultieswhichareoverwhelminglywhite,male,andmiddleclass,lawstudentsadapt,"partlyoutoffear,partlyoutofhopeofgain,partlyoutofgenuineadmirationfortheirrolemodels".Intheseways,"legaleducationisoneofthecausesoflegalhierarchy.Legaleducationsupportsitbyanalogy,providesitagenerallegitimatingideologybyjustifyingtherulesthatunderlieit,andprovidesitaparticularideologybymystifyinglegalreasoning.Legaleducationstructuresthepoolofprospectivelawyerssothattheirhierarchicalorganizationseemsinevitable,andtrainsthemtolookandthinkandactjustlikealltheotherlawyersinthesystem".InadditiontothehierarchywithinthelawschoolssuggestedbyKennedy,otheranalysesofthelawschoolsfunctionsandrelationshiptotheprofessionsuggesttheexistenceofahierarchyamongthelawschools.Thetopdozenorsoelitelawschoolsoccupyapositionofpowerandprestigewhichispartiallyreflectedintheprofessionalcareerpathsoftheirgraduatesandinthe"oldboynetworks"connectingthelawschoolsandtherestofthelegalprofession.Themodelsofthe"lawschoolasthegatewaytotheAmericanpowerelitebecamepossiblewiththeNewDeal".FelixFrankfurtersplacementnetworkforthe"bestandthebrightest"intoinfluentialpublicpolicypositionsduringtheNewDealinthe1930swasanearlyexampleofthiskindofnetwork.DuringhistenureatHarvardandlaterwhileontheSupremeCourt,Frankfurterdevelopedan"oldboynetwork"whichwasintimatelyinvolvedwiththeplacementofmanyofthe"elite"lawyers,allofwhomwerewhiteandmale,intopublicservice.ThetypicalFrankfurterrecruitwas"agraduateofHarvardLawSchool,politicallyliberal,usuallyrankedhighinhisclass,andeitheranobviousproductofupperclassgentilecultureoranobviousproductofaradicallydifferentculturewhowas'comfortable'intheupperclassgentileworld".Inthecurrenthiringpracticesofthemajorlawfirmsandinthecompetitionforjudicialclerkships,andintheappointmentstolawfaculties,thegraduatesoftheeliteschoolscontinuetohaveanadvantageovergraduatesofotherschools.InarecentstudyofChicagolawyers,ZemansandRosenblumfoundthatlawyerswhoattended"highprestigelawschoolsandgraduatedinthetop20percentoftheirclassesweremuchmorelikelytopracticeinlargefirmsandspecializeinhighprestigefieldsoflaw".Intermsofappointmentstolawfaculties,60%ofthelegalprofessionsteachingspecialistsareproducedbyfewerthan15%ofthenationsaccreditedlawschools.Theselawteacherproducerschoolsaremostlynational,locatedinurbanlocations,andincludeschoolssuchasHarvard,Yale,Columbia,UniversityofMichigan,Chicago,NewYorkUniversity,NorthwesternUniversity,andGeorgetown.Ifitistruethatthefulltimefacultyofthelawschools"haveavirtualmonopolyonwhowillandwillnotenterthe(legal)profession"and"onthepowertomoldfuturegenerations",thentheexistenceofahierarchyamongthelawschoolssuggeststhatanelitegroupofschoolsisprimarilyresponsibleforstaffingthelawschools,whichinturnproducelawyersforthehierarchieswithintheprofession.LessonFour：JudicialSystem司法系統(tǒng)Background背景美國法院系統(tǒng)的突出特點(diǎn)是"雙軌制"，即由聯(lián)邦法院和州法院這兩個相互獨(dú)立且平行的體系組成。聯(lián)邦法院行使美國憲法授與聯(lián)邦政府的司法管轄權(quán)。在刑事領(lǐng)域中，聯(lián)邦法院負(fù)責(zé)審理那些違犯聯(lián)邦法律的刑事案件；在民事領(lǐng)域中，聯(lián)邦法院負(fù)責(zé)審理以合眾國為一方、涉及"聯(lián)邦性質(zhì)的問題"，以及發(fā)生在不同州的公民之間且有管轄權(quán)爭議等種類的民事案件。州法院的司法管轄權(quán)較為廣泛。按照美國憲法的規(guī)定，凡是法律未明確授與聯(lián)邦法院的司法管轄權(quán)，均屬于州法院。在實踐中，絕大多數(shù)刑事案件和大多數(shù)民事案件都是由各州法院審判的。聯(lián)邦法院是一個統(tǒng)一的系統(tǒng)。它由聯(lián)邦最高法院(theSupremeCourt)、13個聯(lián)邦上訴法院(CourtsofAppeals)和94個聯(lián)邦地區(qū)法院(DistrictCourts)組成。此外還有索賠法院(theCourtofClaims)、關(guān)稅法院(theCustomsCourt)、關(guān)稅及專利上訴法院(theCourtofCustomsandPatentAppeals)等聯(lián)邦特別法院(SpecialCourts)。各州的法院系統(tǒng)并不完全相同，但一般也都包括三級法院：基層法院多稱為審判法院(TrialCourt)或巡回法院(CircuitCourt)；中級法院多稱為上訴法院(AppellateCourtorCourtofAppeals)；高級法院多稱為最高法院(SupremeCourt)，但在紐約等州，高級法院稱為上訴法院。許多州也有一些專門法院，如遺囑檢驗法院(ProbateCourt)、青少年法院(JuvenileCourt)、家庭關(guān)系法院(CourtofDomesticRelations)和小額索賠法院(SmallClaimsCourt)等。此外，每個城市還有自己的法院，主要負(fù)責(zé)審理交通違法、青少年犯罪、家庭糾紛及其他與城市法令有關(guān)的案件。美國