4.管理文化多樣性課件-2014imba mcd huibert de man

1、Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesPerception, Cognition and CommunicationLecture 3Dr. Huibert de ManManaging Cultural DiversityLecture 3Based on presentations Robbins & Judge, Organizational Behavior. Consistent with Robbins & Coulter. Management, parts of ch. 7, 14 and 15This lectures the

2、mesDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesPerception: how we interpret what we see, hear, smell, feel etc.Communication: how we exchange and share meaningful information in interactionCognition: how we think, reason and gain knowledgeDecision-making: acting sensibly on the basis of what we unde

3、rstandTalking, seeing and thinking are related!In organizations we make sense of what we do and see by talking with one anotherOnly when we talk about what we see, can we understand our own thoughts! Organizations can be seen as on-going conversationsWhat is happening/are we doing and why?What does

4、it mean?What is our/my role in this?What will we do nextEtc.Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesPart 1: PerceptionDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesWe create a sensible interpretation on the basis of the stimuli that our sensory organs receive and are processed by the brain. This i

5、s a process of construction. As in this case, stimuli are often ambiguous: allow for more than one interpretation. Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesWhat Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?Peoples behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.The world

6、 as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.PerceptionA process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.Optical illusionDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesNeglect of ambiguityDr. H. de ManStrateg

7、isch Onderzoek en AdviesOur brain creates differences in height!Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesWe live in an imagined and simplified world (1/2)Man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun (Geertz)We use prior experience (in memory) to interpret what we see (he

8、ar, feel). Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesWe live in an imagined and simplified world (2/2)There is much more than we (can) see, but we assume What you see is all there is WYSIATI (Kahneman)Our experience reflects what we have done in the past, what we have attended to. We live in an en

9、acted environment = our interpretation of that little bit of the world we are familiar with (Karl Weick). Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesPerson Perception: Making Judgments About OthersDistinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different si

10、tuations.Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.Consistency: responds in the same way over time.Attribution TheoryWhen individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesErrors and Bia

11、ses in AttributionsFundamental Attribution ErrorThe tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.In general, we tend to blame the person first, not the situation. Dr. H. de ManStrateg

12、isch Onderzoek en AdviesErrors and Biases in Attributions (contd)Self-Serving BiasThe tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.Thought: When student gets an “A” on an exam, they often say they studied hard.

13、 But when they dont do well, how does the self serving bias come into play? Hint: Whose fault is it usually when an exam is “tough”? Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesFrequently Used Shortcuts in Judging OthersSelective PerceptionPeople selectively interpret what they see on the basis of t

14、heir interests, background, experience, and attitudes.Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesFrequently Used Shortcuts in Judging OthersHalo EffectDrawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristicContrast EffectsEvaluation of a persons characteristics that

15、 are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristicsDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesFrequently Used Shortcuts in Judging OthersProjectionAttributing ones own characteristics to other people.StereotypingJudging someone on

16、 the basis of ones perception of the group to which that person belongs.Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesSpecific Applications in OrganizationsEmployment InterviewPerceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers judgments of applicants.Performance ExpectationsSelf-fulfillin

17、g prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.Ethnic ProfilingA form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled outtypically on the basis of race or ethnicityfor intensive inquiry, scr

18、utinizing, or investigation.Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesSpecific Applications in Organizations (contd)Performance EvaluationsAppraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another employees job performance.Part 2: Decision-makingChoosing a course of act

19、ion, from a number of alternatives, on the basis of information in order to realize (business) goalsImportant aspect of management work (the decision-maker role) Key activity of management teamsQuality of decisions depends onThe perception by managersThe quality of their (critical) thinkingThe quali

20、ty of communicationThe process of decision-makingDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesReality of decision-makingManagement teams want to be rationalRational = take the best possible decision given the situationComplete understanding of cause and effectsUnlimited information and information pr

21、ocessing capacityUnambiguous (clear) goals. Managers must take decisionsWith limited understanding of cause and effectsLimited information and limited information processing capacityUnder time pressureWith ambiguous goals or conflicts between goals. Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesDr. H.

22、 de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesAssumptions of the Rational Decision-Making ModelModel AssumptionsProblem clarityKnown optionsClear preferencesConstant preferencesNo time or cost constraintsMaximum payoffRational Decision-Making ModelDescribes how individuals should behave in order to maximize

23、 some e.Limits on rational decision-makingUncertainty Bounded rationalityLack of knowledgeComplexity of the problemLimits on information processing Time pressureDifferences in goals or interests Political processes and negotiationDifferent external stakeholdersOffice politics: specialized department

24、sDifferent professionals with different viewsDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesFour types of decision-making situationsDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesHow Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations?Bounded RationalityIndividuals mak

25、e decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity.Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesHow Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations? (contd)How/Why problems are IdentifiedVisibility over importance of pro

26、blemAttention-catching, high profile problemsDesire to “solve problems”Self-interest (if problem concerns decision maker)Alternative DevelopmentSatisficing: seeking the first alternative that solves problem.Engaging in incremental rather than unique problem solving through successive limited compari

27、son of alternatives to the current alternative in effect.Thinking: Fast and Slow (Kahneman) Fast thinkingAutomatic, unconscious (you see the solution)Pain-avoiding and pleasure-seekingSimplified thinking: heuristics and biases; assumes WYSIATI: what you see is all there isAdequate in routine situati

28、onsEffortless and pleasantSlow thinking Conscious, explicit and logical (you compute the solution according to sound logic)Truth-seekingComplex thinking: theories, models, methods: aware of plete knowledge of the worldNeeded in complex situationsHard work, tiresome, even painful.Dr. H. de ManStrateg

29、isch Onderzoek en AdviesManagers prefer fast thinkingThey trust their experience (intuition) and have high self-confidenceThey are efficient in routine situationsMove quickly from one decision to the nextAre action-orientedThey make many mistakes in complex situations but do not notice themAssume th

30、ey know the company, the people, the business environmentGeneralize on the basis of few observationsAssume causes and effects where they do not existBlame circumstances and others when they fail (defensiveness)Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesCo

31、mmon Biases and ErrorsOverconfidence BiasBelieving too much in our own ability to make good decisions.Anchoring BiasUsing early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments.Confirmation BiasUsing only the facts that support our decision.Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek

32、en AdviesCommon Biases and ErrorsAvailability BiasUsing information that is most readily at hand.Recent Vivid Representative Bias“Mixing apples with oranges”Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a preexisting category using only the facts that support our decision.Winn

33、ers CurseHighest bidder pays too muchLikelihood of “winners curse” increases with the number of people in auction.Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesCommon Biases and ErrorsEscalation of CommitmentIn spite of new negative information, commitment actually increases!Randomness ErrorCreating m

34、eaning out of random eventsHindsight BiasLooking back, once the e has occurred, and believing that you accurately predicted the e of an event Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesIntuitionIntuitive Decision MakingAn unconscious process created out of distilled experience.Conditions Favoring I

35、ntuitive Decision MakingA high level of uncertainty existsFew facts, priven theory and dataHigh time pressureWhen is Intuitive Decision Making Adequate?Long and intensive experience in a specialized fieldInsight in the boundaries of this experienceIntuition es dangerous If the experience is lacking

36、or people go beyond their fields. Question (also for exam)From what we have learned about biases in information processing and decision-making, what advice could be formulated to improve decision-making in management teams? Give at least five suggestions for improvement! Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Ond

37、erzoek en AdviesPart 3: Communication (see ch. 15)When we work or manage the work of others, we spend a large amount of time on communication. Give an estimate of the amount of time YOU spend on communication each work day:Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesActivityTime (hours, minutes)Read

38、ing and writing e-mail and other mailReading documents and reportsIn meetings with superiorsIn meetings with colleagues on your levelIn meetings with your subordinatesMeeting customers Networking (government, other companies, agencies)Other communicationTotalDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en Adv

39、iesAre you a good communicator?How important are these skills for good communication, in your opinion? Which are the most important skills?Writing skills: clear, concise and purposive languageReading skills: getting to the core quicklySpeaking skills: expressing facts, thoughts and feelings in a cle

40、ar and understandable wayListening skills: active listening to understand the meaning of what people say: facts, thoughts and feelings. How good are you at these skills?How do you know?Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesElements of the Communication ProcessThe senderEncodingThe messageThe c

41、hannelDecodingThe receiverNoiseFeedbackDr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesThe Communication Process ModelCommunication ProcessThe steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transference and understanding of meaning.E X H I B I T 111Application (case like in exam)A company need

42、s to lay-off 10% of its employees as the consequence of restructuring. The management team has the personal department make a selection, based on a number of objective criteria. How this is done, is explained in a document that is made available on the company intranet. The employees concerned get a

43、 letter at their homes, explaining the decision in general terms and the rights of the employee. The letter is correct, but formal, signed by the CEO. At the same time of the letter, the television and newspapers paid a lot of attention to what was seen as a unacceptable business practice.The employ

44、ees concerned are angry and do not understand why they have been fired instead of others. Many of them decide to start legal action with the help of their labour union. Use the process model of communication to explain what happens here. How was the message encoded, what channel was chosen and why,

45、how was the message decoded. What noise played a role? How could this have been done better? Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesCriticism of the process model: too verbal and intellectualAssumes meaning that exists before we express it. In reality, meaning unfolds during a conversation in a

46、 two-way process.Sees changes in interpretation as error and cannot deal with creative communication, from which new meanings arise.Is one-sidedly focused on verbal messages and cannot deal with gestures that are directly connected to action. Cannot explain how easily we understand emotions and feelings of other people, without encoding and decoding them in language or other signs. Dr. H. de ManStrategisch Onderzoek en AdviesC