國(guó)際經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)克魯格曼教材答案

1、Problems and Answers to Chapter 2 Q1: Canada and Australia are (mainly) English-speaking countries with populations that are not too different in size (Canadas is 60 percent larger). But Canadian trade is twice as large, relative to GDP, as Australias. Why should this be the case? 加拿大和澳大利亞都是英語(yǔ)國(guó)家，兩國(guó)的

2、人口規(guī)模也相當(dāng)（加拿大多60%），但是相對(duì)各自的GDP而言，加拿大的貿(mào)易額是澳大利亞的兩倍，為什么如此？A1:According to Gravity Model, GDP is not the only factor to explain the volume of trade between two countries, because distance is also an important factor. Considering the distance, the transportation cost of Australia is relatively higher than t

3、hat of Canada, so the attractiveness of trade is reduced. However, Canada is close to the USA which is a large economy while Australia is not close to any large economy, making Canada more open while Australia is more autarky. GDP 不是解釋兩國(guó)貿(mào)易量的唯一重要因素，距離也是至關(guān)重要的因素之一?？紤]到距離，澳大利亞的進(jìn)出口運(yùn)輸成本相對(duì)更高，因此減少了貿(mào)易吸引力。因?yàn)榧幽?/p>

4、大與美國(guó)相鄰，而澳大利亞不與任何一個(gè)大經(jīng)濟(jì)體相鄰，這使得加拿大更加開(kāi)放，而澳大利亞更加自給自足。Q2:Mexico and Brazil have very different trading patterns. Mexico trades mainly with the United States, Brazil trades about equally with the United States and with the European Union; Mexico does much more trade relative to its GDP. Explain these diffe

5、rences using the gravity model. 墨西哥和巴西各自的貿(mào)易模式不同。墨西哥主要與美國(guó)貿(mào)易，巴西與美國(guó)和歐盟的貿(mào)易量大致相當(dāng)。墨西哥的貿(mào)易量相對(duì)其GDP而言很大。用引力模型解釋這種現(xiàn)象。A2:Mexico is close to the United States, but is very far from the European Union, so Mexicos value of trade with the United States is large. Brazil is far from both the United States and Europea

6、n Union, thus, Brazils volume of trade with the United States and with the European Union is generally equivalent. Mexicos volume of trade is larger than Brazils, for two reasons: one is that Mexico is adjacent to the United States which is a large economy; the other is that Mexico is one of the mem

7、bers of NAFTA. Brazil is far from any large economy, and the size of the economy for the countries which have signed free trade agreements with Brazil is relatively small. 墨西哥與美國(guó)毗鄰，但是距離歐盟很遠(yuǎn)，因此它與美國(guó)的貿(mào)易量很大。巴西離美國(guó)和歐盟都很遠(yuǎn)，因此巴西與美國(guó)和歐盟的貿(mào)易量大致相當(dāng)。墨西哥貿(mào)易量比巴西大，其原因一方面由于墨西哥離大經(jīng)濟(jì)體美國(guó)近，另一方面由于它是北美貿(mào)易協(xié)定的成員國(guó)之一。巴西遠(yuǎn)離任何一個(gè)大經(jīng)濟(jì)體，與

8、它簽訂自由貿(mào)易協(xié)定的國(guó)家經(jīng)濟(jì)規(guī)模都比較小。Q3:Equation (2.1) says that trade between any two countries is proportional to the product of their GDPs. Does this mean that the GDP of every country in the world were to increase by 50%, world trade would increase by 125%? Analyze the question using the simple example shown in

9、 Table 2-2. 方程(2.1) 表明兩個(gè)國(guó)家之間的貿(mào)易和它們的GDP乘積成正比。這是否意味著如果每個(gè)國(guó)家的GDP增加50%, 世界的貿(mào)易量就增加125%？分析這個(gè)問(wèn)題用表格2-2 的簡(jiǎn)單例子。A3:Yes. If both countriesGDP increase by 50%, other things equal, multiplying the right hand side of equation (2.1) by (1+50%)*(1+50%)=225% and multiplying the left hand side of equation (2.1) by 1+12

10、5%=225%, therefore, the volume of trade will increase 125%. Using Table 2-2, if four countriesGDP all increase 50%, the volume of trade will increase 125% correspondingly, so the first line of the table will become: 1.6*225%=3.6 0.4*225% =0.9 0.4*225% =0.9 Country As GDP increases to 4*(1+50%) =6 &g

11、t; (3.6+0.9+0.9= 5.4). According to the assumption, the results are reasonable because the results mean that part of country As income is consumed on imports and part of country As income is consumed on domestic products, although the portion consumed domestically is smaller than that of imports. 是的

12、。如果兩個(gè)國(guó)家的GDP均增加50%，其他條件不變，方程(2.1) 的右邊乘以(1+50%)*(1+50%)=225%, 方程式的左邊乘以1+125%=225%，所以，世界的貿(mào)易量就增加125%。結(jié)合表格2-2，如果四個(gè)國(guó)家的GDP都增加50%倍，貿(mào)易量也增加125%，則表格第一行的數(shù)據(jù)應(yīng)為：1.6*225%=3.6 0.4*225% =0.9 0.4*225% =0.9 A國(guó)的GDP增加到4*(1+50%)=6 > (3.6+0.9+0.9= 5.4)。根據(jù)假設(shè)，這個(gè)結(jié)果是合理的因?yàn)檫@意味著A國(guó)的支出一部分從國(guó)外進(jìn)口一部分收入用于消費(fèi)本國(guó)的產(chǎn)品，雖然用于本國(guó)消費(fèi)的部分少于對(duì)其他國(guó)家的進(jìn)口

13、。Q4: Over the past few decades, East Asian economies have increased their share of world GDP. Similarly, intra-East Asian trade - that is, trade among East Asian nations - has grown as a share of world trade. More than that, East Asian countries 3 do an increasing share of their trade with each othe

14、r. Explain why, using the gravity model. 在過(guò)去的幾十年中，東亞國(guó)家增加了它們?cè)谑澜鏕DP中的份額。同樣，不僅東亞國(guó)家整體的貿(mào)易在世界貿(mào)易中的份額增加了，而且東亞國(guó)家內(nèi)相互間的貿(mào)易也增加了。應(yīng)用引力模型解釋這一現(xiàn)象。A4:In the past, East Asian countries are all small economies, meaning that their size of economies is small and they are unable to import a lot of goods. As these East Asia

15、n countries become richer, the demand increases and they can import more than before. Considering that East Asian countries have been rich countries, they become trading partners with each other; however, they mainly imported goods from rich countries. Based on gravity model, even if the distance be

16、tween South Korea and Taiwan is small, the volume of the two countries is very small due to their small size of economies. But now, because their GDP have increased, the volume of trade between the two countries increased correspondingly. 之前，東亞國(guó)家都是小經(jīng)濟(jì)體，這說(shuō)明它們的市場(chǎng)規(guī)模很小，不能大量進(jìn)口。隨著它們?cè)絹?lái)越富裕，消費(fèi)需求增加，它們也就能更多地進(jìn)口

17、了。這樣，之前它們主要向富國(guó)出口，現(xiàn)在它們自己成為了富國(guó)，互相也就成為了貿(mào)易對(duì)象。根據(jù)引力模型，當(dāng)韓國(guó)和臺(tái)灣GDP規(guī)模很小時(shí)，意味著盡管兩國(guó)的距離很近，但是兩國(guó)之間的貿(mào)易量很小。現(xiàn)在它們GDP增加了，它們之間的貿(mào)易量也隨之增大了。Q5:A century ago, most French imports came from relatively distant locations: North America, Latin America, and Asia. Today, most French imports come from other European countries. How

18、does this fit with the changing types of goods that make up world trade? 一個(gè)世紀(jì)以前，法國(guó)的進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品來(lái)自相對(duì)遙遠(yuǎn)的地區(qū)：北美、拉丁美洲，和亞洲。今天，法國(guó)絕大部分進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品來(lái)自其他歐洲國(guó)家。這種變化是如何迎合不斷變化的世界貿(mào)易產(chǎn)品結(jié)構(gòu)的？A5:A century ago, each countrys trading products are determined by the countrys climate and geography. The climate and natural resources endowmen

19、ts in French are very similar to that of other European countries; therefore, French can only import different products, such as, cotton, rubber, and etc, from other western hemisphere (North America, Latin America) and Asia. However, after industrial revolution, manufacturing trade increased dramat

20、ically. With the development of transportation and communicate technology, Frenchs trade volume with other European countries increases correspondingly, as the gravity model predicted directly. 一個(gè)世紀(jì)以前，各國(guó)貿(mào)易產(chǎn)品是由氣候和地理?xiàng)l件決定的。法國(guó)的氣候和自然資源稟賦和歐洲其他國(guó)家很相似，這樣法國(guó)只能從西半球其他國(guó)家、亞洲進(jìn)口像棉花、橡膠這樣的產(chǎn)品，從歐洲其他國(guó)家進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品很少。工業(yè)革命之后，制造品貿(mào)易

21、增長(zhǎng)，并且隨著交通和通訊的改進(jìn)繼續(xù)擴(kuò)張，因此法國(guó)轉(zhuǎn)向與歐洲其他經(jīng)濟(jì)體大量開(kāi)展貿(mào)易是自然而然的，這就是引力模型的一個(gè)直接預(yù)測(cè)。Chapter 31Home has 1200 units of labor available. It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, while in banana production it is 2. aGraph out the production possibilities frontier: bWh

22、at is the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas?cIn the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms of bananas be? In the absence of trade, since labor is the only factor of production and supply decisions are determined by the attempts of individuals to maximize their earning

23、s in a competitive economy, only when will both goods be produced. So 在沒(méi)有貿(mào)易時(shí)，因?yàn)閯诜绞俏ㄒ坏纳a(chǎn)要素，并且供應(yīng)決定取決于個(gè)體嘗試最大化他們的在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)經(jīng)濟(jì)的收入，只有當(dāng)兩件物品將被生產(chǎn)。 因此2Home is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with a labor force of 800. Foreigns unit labor requirement in apple production is 5, wh

24、ile in banana production it is 1. aGraph Foreigns production possibilities frontier: bConstruct the world relative supply curve.3Now suppose world relative demand takes the following form: Demand for apples/demand for bananas = price of bananas/price of apples. aGraph the relative demand curve along

25、 with the relative supply curve: When the market achieves its equilibrium, we have RD is a hyperbola bWhat is the equilibrium relative price of apples? The equilibrium relative price of apples is determined by the intersection of the RD and RS curves. RD: RS: cDescribe the pattern of trade. In this

26、two-country world, Home will specialize in the apple production, export apples and import bananas. Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples. dShow that both Home and Foreign gain from trade. International trade allows Home and Foreign to consume anywhere wit

27、hin the colored lines, which lie outside the countries production possibility frontiers. And the indirect method, specializing in producing only one production then trade with other country, is a more efficient method than direct production. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by

28、foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. So both Home and Foreign gain from tra

29、de. 國(guó)際貿(mào)易允許本國(guó)和外國(guó)任何地方在分界線之內(nèi)消耗，在一國(guó)生產(chǎn)可能性邊境之外說(shuō)謊。 并且間接方法，專門(mén)研究導(dǎo)致一生產(chǎn)比直接生產(chǎn)然后只換與其他國(guó)家，是一個(gè)高效率的方法。 在沒(méi)有貿(mào)易時(shí)，首頁(yè)可能由前面二個(gè)蘋(píng)果獲取三個(gè)香蕉，并且外國(guó)可能由一前面五個(gè)香蕉獲取。 貿(mào)易允許每個(gè)國(guó)家為一個(gè)蘋(píng)果換二個(gè)香蕉。 首頁(yè)只能由前面二個(gè)蘋(píng)果然后獲取四個(gè)香蕉，當(dāng)外國(guó)時(shí)能由前面二個(gè)香蕉獲取一個(gè)蘋(píng)果。 因此首頁(yè)和從貿(mào)易的外國(guó)獲取。4Suppose that instead of 1200 workers, Home had 2400. Find the equilibrium relative price. What c

30、an you say about the efficiency of world production and the division of the gains from trade between Home and Foreign in this case?RD: RS: In this case, Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples. But Home will produce bananas and apples at the same time. And

31、the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home remains the same. So Home neither gains nor loses but Foreign gains from trade. 在這種情況下，外國(guó)將專門(mén)研究香蕉生產(chǎn)，出口香蕉和進(jìn)口蘋(píng)果。 但是本國(guó)同時(shí)將生產(chǎn)香蕉和蘋(píng)果。 并且香蕉的機(jī)會(huì)成本根據(jù)蘋(píng)果的本國(guó)的依然是同樣。 因此本國(guó)不獲取也不丟失，而是從貿(mào)易的外國(guó)獲取。5Suppose that Home has 2400 workers, but they are only half as prod

32、uction in both industries as we have been assuming, Construct the world relative supply curve and determine the equilibrium relative price. How do the gains from trade compare with those in the case described in problem 4?In this case, the labor is doubled while the productivity of labor is halved,

33、so the effective laborremains the same. So the answer is similar to that in 3. And both Home and Foreign can gain from trade. But Foreign gains lesser compare with that in the case 4. 6”Korean workers earn only $2.50 an hour; if we allow Korea to export as much as it likes to the United States, our

34、workers will be forced down to the same level. You cant import a $5 shirt without importing the $2.50 wage that goes with it.” Discuss. In fact, relative wage rate is determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. Koreas low wage reflects the fact that Korea is less produc

35、tive than the United States in most industries. Actually, trade with a less productive, low wage country can raise the welfare and standard of living of countries with high productivity, such as United States. So this pauper labor argument is wrong. 實(shí)際上，相對(duì)工資率取決于比較生產(chǎn)力和對(duì)物品的相對(duì)需求。 Koreas低工資反射事實(shí)韓國(guó)比多數(shù)產(chǎn)業(yè)的美

36、國(guó)較不有生產(chǎn)力的。 實(shí)際上，與一個(gè)較不有生產(chǎn)力，低工資國(guó)家的貿(mào)易可能培養(yǎng)國(guó)家福利和生活水平有高生產(chǎn)力的，例如美國(guó)。 因此這個(gè)叫花子勞方論據(jù)是錯(cuò)誤的。 7Japanese labor productivity is roughly the same as that of the United States in the manufacturing sector (higher in some industries, lower in others), while the United States, is still considerably more productive in the ser

37、vice sector. But most services are non-traded. Some analysts have argued that this poses a problem for the United States, because our comparative advantage lies in things we cannot sell on world markets. What is wrong with this argument? The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the

38、relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries. So there are four aspects should be taken into account before we reach conclusion: both the industries and service sectors of Japan and U.S., not just the two service sectors. So this statement does not bade on the r

39、easonable logic.所有產(chǎn)業(yè)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)取決于產(chǎn)業(yè)的相對(duì)生產(chǎn)力和橫跨產(chǎn)業(yè)的親戚薪水。 因此，在我們得出結(jié)論之前，有四個(gè)方面應(yīng)該考慮到： 產(chǎn)業(yè)和日本和美國(guó)，不僅二個(gè)服務(wù)部門(mén)的服務(wù)部門(mén)。 不因此這個(gè)聲明在合理的邏輯出了價(jià)。8Anyone who has visited Japan knows it is an incredibly expensive place; although Japanese workers earn about the same as their U.S. counterparts, the purchasing power of their incomes i

40、s about one-third less. Extend your discussing from question 7 to explain this observation. (Hint: Think about wages and the implied prices of non-trade goods.) The relative higher purchasing power of U.S. is sustained and maintained by its considerably higher productivity in services. Because most

41、of those services are non-traded, Japanese could not benefit from those lower service costs. And U.S. does not have to face a lower international price of services. So the purchasing power of Japanese is just one-third of their U.S. counterparts.美國(guó)的相對(duì)更高的購(gòu)買(mǎi)力由它的在服務(wù)的相當(dāng)?shù)馗叩纳a(chǎn)力承受并且維護(hù)。 由于大多那些服務(wù)non-traded，

42、日語(yǔ)不可能受益于那些更低的服務(wù)費(fèi)用。 并且美國(guó)不必須面對(duì)服務(wù)的一個(gè)更低的國(guó)際價(jià)格。 因此日語(yǔ)的購(gòu)買(mǎi)力是他們的美國(guó)相對(duì)物的三分之一。9How does the fact that many goods are non-traded affect the extent of possible gains from trade? Actually the gains from trade depended on the proportion of non-traded goods. The gains will increase as the proportion of non-traded goo

43、ds decrease. 10We have focused on the case of trade involving only two countries. Suppose that there are many countries capable of producing two goods, and that each country has only one factor of production, labor. What could we say about the pattern of production and in this case? (Hint: Try const

44、ructing the world relative supply curve.) Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal po

45、rtion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods. Chapter 41. In 1986, the price of oil on world markets dropped sharply. Since the United States is an oil-importing country, this was widely regarded as good for the U.S. economy. Yet in Texas and Louisiana 1986 was a year of economic

46、 decline. Why?It can deduce that Texas and Louisiana are oil-producing states of United States. So when the price of oil on world markets declined, the real wage of this industry fell in terms of other goods. This might be the reason of economic decline in these two states in 1986.2。An economy can p

47、roduce good 1 using labor and capital and good 2 using labor and land. The total supply of labor is 100 units. Given the supply of capital, the outputs of the two goods depends on labor input as follows:To analyze the economys production possibility frontier, consider how the output mix changes as l

48、abor is shifted between the two sectors.a. Graph the production functions for good 1 and good 2. b. Graph the production possibility frontier. Why is it curved?Q1Q2L1L2PPF The PPF is curved due to declining marginal product of labor in each good. The total labor supply is fixed. So as L1 rises, MPL1

49、 falls; correspondingly, as L2 falls, MPL2 rises. So PP gets steeper as we move down it to the right.2. The marginal product of labor curves corresponding to the production functions in problem2 are as follows:a. Suppose that the price of good 2 relative to that of good 1 is 2. Determine graphically

50、 the wage rate and the allocation of labor between the two sectors.With the assumption that labor is freely mobile between sectors, it will move from the low-wage sector to the high-wage sector until wages are equalized. So in equilibrium, the wage rate is equal to the value of labors marginal produ

51、ct. 假設(shè)勞方自由地是在區(qū)段之間的機(jī)動(dòng)性，它從低工資的區(qū)段將移動(dòng)向high-wage區(qū)段，直到薪水被調(diào)平。 因此在平衡，工資率與labors邊際產(chǎn)品的價(jià)值是相等的。 The abscissa of point of intersection illustrated above should be between (20, 30). Since we only have to find out the approximate answer, linear function could be employed.The labor allocation between the sectors is

52、 approximately L1=27 and L2=73. The wage rate is approximately 0.98. 被說(shuō)明的交點(diǎn)橫坐標(biāo)以上應(yīng)該之間(20， 30)。 因?yàn)槲覀儽仨氈话l(fā)現(xiàn)近似答復(fù)，線性函數(shù)可能被使用。在區(qū)段之間的The辛苦分派是大約L1=27和L2=73。 工資率是大約0.98。b. Using the graph drawn for problem 2, determine the output of each sector. Then confirm graphically that the slop of the production possibil

53、ity frontier at that point equals the relative price.Q1Q2L1L2PPF The relative price is P2/P1=2 and we have got the approximate labor allocation, so we can employ the linear function again to calculate the approximate output of each sector: Q1=44 and Q2=90. 相對(duì)價(jià)格是P2/P1=2，并且我們有近似辛苦分派，因此我們可以再使用線性函數(shù)計(jì)算每個(gè)區(qū)

54、段近似產(chǎn)品： Q1=44和Q2=90。c. Suppose that the relative price of good 2 falls to 1. Repeat (a) and (b).The relative decline in the price of good 2 caused labor to be reallocated: labor is drawn out of production of good 2 and enters production of good 1 (1=62, L2=38). This also leads to an output adjustment

55、, that is, production of good 2 falls to 68 units and production of good 1 rises to 76 units. And the wage rate is approximately equal to 0.74. 在導(dǎo)致的價(jià)格的相對(duì)衰落的好2將被再分配的勞方： 勞方被畫(huà)出于生產(chǎn)好2并且輸入好1的生產(chǎn)(1=62， L2=38)。 這也導(dǎo)致輸出調(diào)整，即，好2個(gè)秋天到68個(gè)單位的生產(chǎn)和生產(chǎn)好1上升到76個(gè)單位。 并且工資率是大約相等到0.74。 Q1Q2L1L2PPFd. Calculate the effects of th

56、e price change on the income of the specific factors in sectors 1 and 2.With the relative price change from P2/P1=2 to P2/P1=1, the price of good 2 has fallen by 50 percent, while the price of good 1 has stayed the same. Wages have fallen too, but by less than the fall in P2 (wages fell approximatel

57、y 25 percent). Thus, the real wage relative to P2 actually rises while real wage relative to P1 falls. Hence, to determine the welfare consequence for workers, the information about their consumption shares of good 1 and good 2 is needed. 相對(duì)價(jià)格變動(dòng)，而價(jià)格的好1停留了同樣，從P2/P1=2到P2/P1=1，價(jià)格的好2由50%下落了。 薪水由較少比在P2的秋天下落了，但是(薪水落大約25%)。 因此，當(dāng)實(shí)際工資相對(duì)P1落時(shí)，實(shí)際工資相對(duì)P2實(shí)際上上升。 因此，確定工作者的福利救濟(jì)后果，關(guān)于他們的消耗量份額的信息好1和好2是需要的。3. In the text we examined the impacts of increases in the supply of capital and land. But what if the mobile factor, labor, increases in supply?a Analyze the qualitative effects of