語(yǔ)言學(xué)考試要點(diǎn)(考試重點(diǎn)整理

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 語(yǔ)音學(xué) ；phonology 音位學(xué)；morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)；syntax 句法學(xué)；pragmatics 語(yǔ)用學(xué)(2). sociolinguistics 社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)；psycholinguistics 心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)；applied linguistic

2、s應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)3. Some important distinction in linguistics(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性與規(guī)定性 If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behavior in using

3、language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. (2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共時(shí)性與歷時(shí)性A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.

4、Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. (2) Langue & parole 語(yǔ)言與會(huì)話Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance

5、 語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 語(yǔ)言與文字 Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar

6、and modern linguistic 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法與現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)4. Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a l

7、inguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5. Design features of language6. (1) Arbitrariness 任意性 refers to the forms of linguistic signs b

8、ear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能產(chǎn)性 Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality雙重性 The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the p

9、rimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性 Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (5)cul

10、tural transmission 文化傳承性7. Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), (5) phatic

11、 (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings). Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational) Interpersonal(人際功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status) Performative(施為功能) :

12、 language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare). Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain so

13、cial contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather) Recreational function(娛樂(lè)): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)Metalingual function(元語(yǔ)言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)） is the study of the phonic medium of language;

14、it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2. Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：broad transcription（寬式標(biāo)音）and narrow transcription（嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音）A broad transcription（寬式標(biāo)音）is the transcription

15、 with letter-symbols only. A narrow transcription（嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音） is a transcription with letter symbols together with diacritics.3. Phonology（音位學(xué)）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4. The differences between phonetics and phonology:（語(yǔ)音的正字表征）Both are concerned with the same aspe

16、ct of language-the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they h

17、ave, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 5. Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位變體）A phone- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and prod

18、uce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位

19、對(duì)立，互補(bǔ)分布，最小對(duì)立體）7. Some rules of phonology（音位學(xué)規(guī)則）Sequential rules 序列規(guī)則Assimilation rule 同化規(guī)則Deletion rule省略規(guī)則8. Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音調(diào)，intonation語(yǔ)調(diào)9. 10. Chapter 3 Morphology1. Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可變?cè)~類和不可變?cè)~類Variable words: One could find ord

20、ered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2） Grammatical words vs.

21、lexical words:語(yǔ)法詞類和詞匯詞類Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class w

22、ords:封閉詞類和開(kāi)放詞類Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical-lexical words clos

23、ed-class-open-class words2. Morphere(詞素)： the minimal meaningful unit of language.3. Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.4. Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由語(yǔ)素和黏著語(yǔ)素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself

24、is called a free morpheme; a morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(詞素變體)6. Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折詞綴和派生詞綴)7. Compound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to

25、 join two separate words to produce a single form. In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes. 8. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound (向心復(fù)合詞) the exocentric compound(離心復(fù)合詞)9. Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship

26、 of “a kind of”; eg self-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10. Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg scarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is Syntax （句法）? Syntax is the study of the rules gov

27、erning the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究語(yǔ)言的不同成分組成句子的規(guī)則2. Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds: relations of position 位置關(guān)系 relations of substitutability 替代關(guān)系 relations of co-occurrence 同現(xiàn)關(guān)系3. 4. 5. Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is Semantics?Semantics

28、is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.語(yǔ)義學(xué)是研究單詞、短語(yǔ)和句子的意義的學(xué)科2. The conceptualist view The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning the

29、y are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/formreferencentword/phrase/sentence The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words

30、and phrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the m

31、eaning of the word. 3. The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, contextelements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a words co-occurrence or collo

32、cation.4. BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5. Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense- is c