語言學(xué)概論 總結(jié)

1、 Part OneDefinition of language Design features of language Functions of language Part Two Definition of linguistics The scope of linguistics Important distinctions in linguistics 1Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (2005 A. arbitrariness 任意性B. productivityC. cul

2、tural transmissionD. finiteness 有限性 2The distinction between parole 言語and langue 語言was made by _. (2006A. Halliday C. Saussure 索緒爾(瑞士語言學(xué)家B. Chomsky 喬姆斯基(美國語言學(xué)家,轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法的創(chuàng)始人D. Bloomfield 布洛姆菲爾德(美國語言學(xué)家教育家 考點(diǎn):語言流派的主要代表人物、四對概念的區(qū)分。 3Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “high way closed” on a hig

3、h way serves _. (2010 A. an expressive function 表達(dá)功能 B. an informative function 信息功能 C. a performative function 行事/施為功能 D. a persuasive function 勸說功能考點(diǎn):語言的基本功能。信息功能、人際功能、施為功能、感情功能、寒暄功能、娛樂功能。其中最重要的是信息功能。 4The function of the sentence A nice day , isnt it? is _.A. informativeB. phatic 寒暄功能C. directive

4、 指示功能D. performativeP7-8 Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication. 語言是人類用來交際的任意性的有聲符號體系。1 Language is a system.Systematic - rule-governed 受規(guī)則制約的, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules ; cant be combined at will. E.g. *bkli

5、, *I apple eat. 2Language is arbitrary.Arbitrary - no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes 表示. E.g . “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with. 3Language is symbolic 符號的in nature.Symbolic - words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention 慣例.

6、“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet ”-by Shakespeare 4Language is primarily vocal.Vocal - the primary medium 基本媒介is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.5Language is human-specific. 語言是人類特有的 Human-specific - different from the communication systems othe

7、r forms of life possess. E.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.1 Arbitrariness 任意性2 Productivity/Creativity 創(chuàng)造性 3 Duality 二重性 4 Displacement 移位性5 Cultural transmission 文化傳遞性1 Arbitrariness-No logical (motivated 有積極性的or intrinsic 固有的 connection between sounds and meanings. Some compound words are

8、not entirely arbitrary , e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy Apes e p gibber d b .猴子唧唧叫 Roosters crow. 公雞喔喔叫 Hens cluck. 母雞咯咯嗒 Chicks peep. 小雞唧唧唧 Bulls bellow. Cows moo.老牛哞哞哞 Ducks quack kwk.鴨子嘎嘎嘎 Cats mew. 小貓喵喵叫 Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱 Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩 Pigs grunt. 小豬呼嚕嚕 Mice squeak

9、skwik. 老鼠吱吱叫 Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. English and Chinese cows sound the same, but not in English and Chinese! The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign 語言符號and its meaning, however, is also conventional 符合習(xí)俗

10、的.2 Productivity / Creativity-Peculiar to是特有的human languages,users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.Language is resourceful資源豐富的because of its duality二元性and its recursiveness rik:sivnis遞歸性. We can use it to create new meanings.Words can be used in new way

11、s to mean new things, and can be instantly立即地understood by people who have never come across講得清楚明白that usage before.The recursive nature遞歸性of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences.For instance:He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school wh

12、ich was known for its graduates who .This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt麥芽that lay in the house that Jack built.3 Duality (double articulationLower level-sounds (meaninglessHigher level-meaning (larger units of meaning二層性是指擁有兩層結(jié)構(gòu)這種特性,上層結(jié)構(gòu)的單位由底層結(jié)構(gòu)的元素構(gòu)成,每層都有自身的組合規(guī)則。(Lyons, 1981 E.g.

13、b-o-o-k (meaningless segments: lower level, secondaryBook (meaningful unit: higher level, primary Questions:Can you think of some other systems with the property of duality? Why is this property generally assumed as central to language? Does animal The secondary level sounds(meaningless syllablesThe

14、 primary level morphemes (meaningful wordsphrasessentences ( etc.4 Displacement-Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present (in time and space: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away遙遠(yuǎn)的places.E.g. A gibbon長臂猿never utters發(fā)出a call about something he

15、ate last year.Animal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control” (直接刺激控制. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger.Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus刺激in the world or any internal state. 5

16、 Cultural transmission-Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct.Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. The story of a wolf chil

17、d狼孩, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.1referential ,refren(l (to convey message and information (所指功能,即傳達(dá)信息2 poeticpetk (to indulge in language for its own sake(詩學(xué)功能,即享受語言自身的樂趣3 emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions (情

18、感功能,即表達(dá)態(tài)度,感覺和情感4 conativekuntiv (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests(意動功能,即通過指令和懇求說服和影響他人5 phaticftk (to establish communion with others (寒暄功能,即與他人建立交際6 metalingual,metliwl (to clear up intentions and meanings. (元語言功能,弄清意圖、詞語和意義注:1emotive (expressive function: releases fee

19、lings. Swear words罵人話, obscenities猥褻, exclamation 驚嘆詞, involuntary verbal言語的reactions.2 phatic function: Good morning. How are you?Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions元功能思想of language. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor,

20、 Johnny, yours, your obedient servant敬上 indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.The scientific study of human language Aims of linguistic theory:What is knowledge of language?(Competence How is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition How is knowledge of language put to use? (Perf

21、ormance/language processing 性能/語言處理 Phonetics 發(fā)音/語音學(xué) Phonology 音系/音韻學(xué) Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)Syntax 句法 Semantics 語義學(xué) Pragmatics 語用學(xué) Descriptive vs. prescriptive Synchronic vs. diachronic Speech vs. writing Langue & parole Competence and performance 1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive Dont say X. People dont say X

22、.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in 在于prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Descritptive: the linguists tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a large communityactually conform 遵照

23、and does not seek to impose upon them other rules or norms of correctness.Prescriptive : the grammarians 文法家 tries to lay down 制定rules for the correct use of language and set the disputes over 就進(jìn)行辯論usage once and for all 徹底地. ( right / wrongHumorous grammar rules :Never end a sentence with a preposi

24、tion. And dont start a sentence with a conjunction. It is wrong to ever split 分離an infinitive 不定式. No sentence fragments. 2Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. D

25、iachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history .Synchronic study 共時(shí)性研究- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics Diachronic study 歷時(shí)性研究- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time3 Sp

26、eech vs. writingSpeech - primary medium of language Writing - later developed4Langue 語言 vs. parole 言語 (F. de Saussure Langue - the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole - the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language

27、 and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions. 5 Competence and performance (Chomsky Competence - the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point

28、 of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6 Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsTraditional grammar - prescriptive, written,Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics - descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework 1. Modern linguistics differs from t

29、raditional grammar for it is mostly _.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. subjectiveD. Latin-based2.A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _.A. abnormalB. something to be fearedC.naturalD. unnatural3.Of the “words” listed below, _is not an English word. A. spin B. lkbi C.strikt D

30、. desk4.The study of language development at some point in time is generally termed as _ linguistics.A. comparative比較的B. appliedC. synchronicD. diachronic5. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. bangB. photoC. typewriterD. rumble6. Modern linguistics give priority to speech because _

31、.A. speech sounds are derived from writing systems.B. The spoken form is more basic than the written form.C. Writing precedes speech in English language.D. All the languages today have both spoken and written forms.7. Which of the following statements is not the concern of sociolinguists?A. The lang

32、uage a person uses reveals his social background.B. There exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion.C. How does the human mind work when they use language.D. To investigate the social aspects of language.8. Language is _ in that it makes possible the con

33、struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. systematicB. culturally transmittedC. intuitive 憑直覺獲知的D. productive 9. _ studies the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.A. PhonologyB. SemanticsC. SyntaxD. Morphology10.The study of language as a whole is

34、often called _ linguistics.A. generalB. applied B. generative D. particular11. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the _ nature of language.A. productiveB. dualC. arbitraryD. displacing12. Which of the following is not a major branch o

35、f linguistics?A. phoneticsB. phonologyC. speechD. syntax13. The application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching is _.A. computational linguisticsB. anthropological linguisticsC. mathematical linguisticsD. applied linguistics14. Modern linguistics regards the written language a

36、s_.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable15. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way

37、 in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above16. A historical study of language is a _ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative17. Saussure took a (n_ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a _ point of view.A. sociologi

38、cal,psychologicalB.psychological,sociologicalC. applied, pragmaticD. semantic and linguistic18. According to F. de Saussure, _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language19. The details of any language system is

39、 passed on from one generation to the next through _ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B/語音學(xué) To draw your attention to the areas of the phonetic study.To assist you to know more about the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA國際音標(biāo).To help familiarize you with the fa

40、ctors involved indescribing English consonants and vowels.1. What is the difference between “the phonic medium of language” and “the speech sounds”?The phonic medium of language refers to the limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication. 語言的聲音媒介The speech sounds refer to the i

41、ndividual sounds within the range of the phonic medium of language.The phonic medium of language FamilyThe speech sounds Family members2. Why is speech considered more basic than writing?Statistically, speech exists in every language while no written form exists in two thirds of the 5000 languages i

42、n the world.Historically, speech came into being much earlier than writing.Functionally, writing is invented to record speech.Individually, speech is acquired before writing. 1. What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistic

43、sPhonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, that is, all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.2. Discuss the relationship between articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics in terms of the process of human linguistic communication. 1. What organs are inv

44、olved in producing language?NasalLipsResonatingcavity共鳴腔TeethcavitiesTeeth ridgeOral cavity Hard palateSpeechorgansSoft palateUvulaTonguePharyngeal cavity咽腔Vocalcords聲帶LungsHuman vocal tract 聲道is just like a (extremely flexible m musical instrument!The human vocal tract can be rapidly reshaped inman

45、y different ways to take on different resonating 產(chǎn)生共鳴的properties.The effect of this is to create the variety of differentsounds in human speech.3. The diagram of speech organs:1 Lips2 Teeth3 Teeth ridge (alveolar 齒齦4 Hard palate硬腭5Soft palate (velum 軟腭6 Uvulaju:vjul小舌7Tip of tongue舌尖8Blade of tongue

46、舌面1.9 Glottal.Back of tongue舌背10Vocal cords聲帶11Pharyngeal cavity咽喉12Nasal cavity 鼻腔 寬式和嚴(yán)式轉(zhuǎn)寫P17-181. What are main principles of the InternationalPhonetic Alphabet (IPA?There should be a separate letter for each distinctivesound. The same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which

47、it appears.2. What is the difference between narrowtranscription (嚴(yán)式轉(zhuǎn)寫 and broad transcription (寬式轉(zhuǎn)寫 ?1Broad transcription is regarded as phonemic transcription (音位轉(zhuǎn)寫. It is widely used in textbooks and dictionaries. Examples: /stop/ /top/ /plein/ 2Narrow transcription is regarded as phonetic transc

48、ription (語音轉(zhuǎn)寫. It is used to distinguish small difference in speech production.Examples: p at vs. spat for pot vs. spot 1 Broad transcription - used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics ,e.g. clear l , pit 2 Narrow transcription - used by phonetician 語言學(xué)者 for careful st

49、udy, with diacritics ,e.g . dark l , aspirated p 1.- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels Consonants 2. What is the difference between a consonant and a vowel?3、Classification of consonants P19-20- English consonants may be classified according to three di

50、mensions 三維:1The manner of articulation 2The place of articulation 3Voicing1The manner of articulation 發(fā)音方法: stops/plosives 塞音 fricatives 擦音 affricates 塞擦音 liquids 流音nasals 鼻音 glides/semivowels 滑音 2The place of articulation 發(fā)音部位: bilabial 雙唇音的 labiodental 唇齒音的 dental 齒音的 alveolar 齒齦音的 palatal 硬腭音的 v

51、elar 軟顎音的 glottal 喉音的1.Bilabial2. Labiodental3.Dental or interdental4. Alveolar5. Palatoalveolar6.Palatal7. Velar8.Uvular9.Glottal4. The description of English consonants :Affri-Frica- t Stops or Alveo-Labio-Bila-Voic-manner j wVDGlidesl, rVD Liquids nm VD Nasals d (d VD t t VL cates z v VD h s f VL

52、 tives g d b VD k p VL plosives GlottalVelar PalatallarDentaldentalbialing Place1、 What are the 5 major factors involved in describing vowels?1 The position of the tongue in the mouth 2 The openness of the mouth. 3 The shape of the lips. 4 The length of the vowel 5 The tongue movementExamples: ei a

53、diphthong 雙元音i: close front long/tense unrounded vowel (amonophthong 單元音2、Classification of vowels P20-22- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:1 Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 2 Diphthongs or gliding vowelsFront Vowels, central vowels and back vowels : According to which part

54、 of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:but, word, reed, pad, bit, bed, who, true, boss, walk,fool, top, good, father,Front vowels: /i:/, /i/, /e/, /, / / Central vowels: /, /, /:/Back vowels: /:/, /, / :/, /u/, /u:/ According to the openness o

55、f the mouth : Close: /i:/, /i/, /u/, /u:/ Semi-close 半閉: /e/, /:/ Semi-open: /, / :/Open: /, /, / /, /, / :/3、The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:1The openness of the mouth (close, semi-close, semi-open, open 2the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back3the length of the vowel (long vs. short / tense vs. lax 4lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded. We can now describe the English vowels in this way: i: close front long/tense unrounded vowelu close back sho