耶魯大學(xué)心理學(xué)導(dǎo)論中英文字幕

1、襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕

2、蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄

3、衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈

4、螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂

5、薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇

6、螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁

7、蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈

8、袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂

9、螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆

10、薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁

11、螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅裊肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羈芀蝕薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂蠆螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃襖肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肅肅薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蟻襖膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蝕蚆螃羋蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆螞袀芅葿蚈衿蕆節(jié)羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂

12、芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆

13、蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃

14、艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋

15、膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂

16、莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆

17、膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁

18、葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅

19、芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿

20、薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆

21、蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀

22、膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅

23、蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿

24、芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃

25、薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇

26、莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄

27、膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿

28、蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅莈螞羀羈芄蟻蝕膄膀蝕螂羆蒈蠆裊膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羈腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蕆荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蕆袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃節(jié)蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蕆薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇羋膁薈羀肁葿薇蠆芆蒞薆螂聿芁蚅襖芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂螞袈肅 今天我們要講的是語言this class today is about language.很大程度上來說語言就是行為and language is,

29、to a large extent, where the action is. 人類語言的研究the study of human language是各種人性理論的重要領(lǐng)域has been the battleground over different theories of human nature. 因此無論是哲學(xué)家心理學(xué)家so, every philosopher or psychologist人類學(xué)家還是神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)學(xué)家or humanist or neuroscientist只要他們曾經(jīng)研究過人類who has ever thought about people便會就語言的特性及其功能提

30、出某些理論has had to make some claim about the nature of language and how it works.我所說的這些學(xué)者包括了im including here people like亞里士多德柏拉圖休莫aristotle and plato, hume,洛克弗洛依德以及斯金納locke, freud and skinner.而這些理論則包括了im also including modern-day approaches計算理論認知神經(jīng)科學(xué)進化論to computational theory, cognitive neuroscience,

31、evolutionary theory以及文化心理學(xué)的諸多當代理論and cultural psychology.如果你想要理解關(guān)于人類本質(zhì)if you hope to make it with theory of what people are 及其行為模式的理論and how people work,就必須得探討并解釋語言you have to explain and talk about language.事實上語言是非常有意思的in fact, language is sufficiently interesting that,與本門課上探討的其他主題不同unlike most oth

32、er things ill talk about in this class, 對它的研究形成了一個完整的專業(yè)there is an entier field devoted to this study即語言學(xué)專業(yè)the field of linguistics這個專業(yè)致力于研究各種語言的that is entirely devoted to studying細微差異及其結(jié)構(gòu)the nuances and structures of different languages.在詳細討論之前我想首先下一個定義now, ill first, before getting into details,

33、make a definitional point.當我談到語言時when im talking about language我指的是諸如英語荷蘭語im meaning systems like english and dutch沃皮利語意大利語土耳其語and warlpiri and italian and turkish烏爾都語這樣的語言系統(tǒng)and urdu以及我們在正式上課之前的課堂演示中and what weve seen and heard right now in class in the demonstration所看到和聽到的語言系統(tǒng)that preceded the form

34、al lecture.現(xiàn)在你可以應(yīng)用另一種意義上的語言now, you could use language in a different sense. 在此意義上 "語言"可以被用來描述you could use the term "language" to describe 狗兒在干什么what dogs do,黑猩猩在干什么or what chimpanzees do,或是鳥兒在干什么or birds.也可用來描述音樂you could use language to describe music,即音樂語言talk about the-a mus

35、ical language或是去描述藝術(shù)or art,或任何的交流系統(tǒng)or any communicative system,都是沒問題的and theres actually nothing wrong with that.因為并沒有什么theres no rule關(guān)于應(yīng)當如何運用"語言"一詞的規(guī)定about how youre supposed to use the word "language." 但問題是but the problem is如果你無限寬泛地使用"語言"一詞if you use the word "la

36、nguage" impossibly, incredibly broadly,那么從科學(xué)的角度來看then from a scientific point of view探究語言就變得毫無意義了it becomes useless to ask interesting questions about it.如果語言能夠表示一切if language can refer to just about everything從英語到交通信號from english to traffic signals,那我們就無法得出各種有趣的概論then were not going to be able

37、 to find interesting generalizations或是無法對語言進行科學(xué)的研究or do good science about it.因此我想做的是so, what i want to do is,我想來談?wù)務(wù)Z言的科學(xué)定義i want to discuss the scientific notion of language,首先我會將自己限定在at first restricting myself諸如英語荷蘭語美國手語to systems like english and dutch and american sign language 或迪瓦霍語等語言系統(tǒng)之下and n

38、avajo and so on.一旦我們在狹義上once weve made some generalizations得出了某些關(guān)于語言的概論about language in this narrow sense,那我們就可以發(fā)問we could then ask, and we will ask,諸如動物交流系統(tǒng)之類的其他系統(tǒng)to what extent會在多大程度上do other systems such as animal communication systems符合這個狹隘的定義呢relate to this narrower definition.我們可以發(fā)問so we coul

39、d ask,從狹義上說語言擁有何種特性in this narrow sense, what properties do languages have 然后我們可以接著發(fā)問and then go on to ask,從廣義上說in a broader sense,哪些其他的交流系統(tǒng)也同樣擁有那些特性what other communicative systems also possess those properties.有些關(guān)于語言的知識非常明顯well, some things are obvious about language這是我們將會提到的的一些問題so here are some;

40、 here are the questions we will ask. 我們今天就主要來討論這些問題this will frame our discussion today.我們將首先溫習(xí)一些語言的基本事實well first go over some basic facts about language. 我們將會談及各種語言的共性well talk about what languages share,談及語言的發(fā)展well talk about how language develops,以及非人類的語言交流and well talk about language and commun

41、ication in nonhumans. 我用一段演示來開始今天的課i began this class with a demonstration of這段演示闡述了語言非常重要的兩個事實-that illustrates two very important facts about language.其一是所有語言都共享one is that languages all share一些深層且復(fù)雜的共性some deep and intricate universals.尤其是所有的語言都至少in particular, all languages, at minimum,能夠有效地表達抽象

42、概念are powerful enough to convey an abstract notion like this; 在某種意義上來說abstract in the sense抽象概念能夠表達思想that it talks about thoughts能夠表述物體的位置與空間關(guān)系and it talks about a proposition and spatial relations in objects. 世界上并不存在theres no language in the world無法談?wù)摮橄蟾拍畹恼Z言that you just cannot talk about abstract

43、things with.所有語言都可以every language can do this.但這個演示也闡明了語言的另一個事實but the demonstration also illustrated another fact about language,即語言如何不同which is how different languages are.兩個事實聽上去是不同的they sound different.如果你掌握了一種語言if you know one language,你就不需要再去掌握其他的語言了you dont necessarily know another.不僅是因為你不能理解

44、另外一種語言its not merely that you cant understand it.比如說手語看上去會很奇怪或是異常it could sound strange or look unusual in the case of a sign language.因此任何完善的語言理論and so, any adequate theory of language都必須談及不同語言間的共性和差異has to allow for both the commonalities and the differences across languages.這也是心理學(xué)和語言認知學(xué)and this i

45、s the puzzle faced by所面臨的難題the psychology and cognitive science of language.我以達爾文提出的well, lets start with an interesting claim一個有趣的語言觀點來作為開始about language made by charles darwin.查爾斯達爾文寫到so, darwin writes,"人類擁有說話的本能傾向"man has an instinctive tendency to speak,我們會看到幼兒含糊吐字as we see in the babb

46、le of our young children,然而兒童卻并不具有烘焙while no child has an instinctive tendency釀酒或是寫作的本能傾向"to bake, brew or write."達爾文在此所表達的觀點and what darwin is claiming here,極具爭議而又非常有趣and its a controversial and interesting claim,這個觀點認為語言之所以特殊is that language is special是因為總有某些傾向能力或本能in that theres some so

47、rt of propensity or capacity or instinct 使得語言與他所舉的其他例子有所不同for language unlike the other examples he gives. 我們的一切并非都是天生的not everything comes natural to us但達爾文卻認為語言是與生俱來的but darwin suggests that language does.我們?yōu)槭裁匆嘈潘挠^點呢well, why should we believe this?達爾文的觀點得到了一些基本事實的支持well, there are some basic fa

48、cts that support darwins claim.舉例來說所有人類社會都擁有語言for one thing, every normal. every human society has language.在旅行過程中文化與文化相互碰撞in the course of traveling, cultures encounter other culture 而人們通常則會遇到and they often encounter cultures與其自身所處文化截然不同的另一些文化that are very different from their own.但在人類歷史的進程中but thr

49、ough the course of human history,還沒有人曾經(jīng)遇到過nobody has ever encountered another group of humans沒有語言的人類族群that did not have a language.這是否表明語言就是天生的呢does this show that its built in?未必可能只是文化創(chuàng)新而已well, not necessarily. it could be a cultural innovation.比如說可能只是因為it could be, for instance,語言是一個非常棒的創(chuàng)新that lan

50、guage is such a good idea所有文化都接受了它并且發(fā)展了它that every culture comes across it and develops it.幾乎所有的文化都會使用某些餐具just about every culture uses some sort of utensils to eat food with,刀叉筷子勺子a knife and a fork, chopsticks, a spoon.之所以都用餐具this probably is not because并不是因為使用餐具是人類本性use of eating utensils is huma

51、n nature,而是因為所有文化都不斷發(fā)現(xiàn)but rather, its because its just a very useful thing餐具非常的實用that cultures discover over and over again.我們知道語言可能并不是這個情況well, we know that this probably is not true with regard to language.我們之所以這樣認為and one reason we know this是因為有許多的個案研究is because of the demonstrated case studies都證

52、明了一代人之內(nèi)是可以創(chuàng)造出語言的where a language is created within a single generation.這些個案研究曾在歷史上得到多次驗證and these case studies have happened over history. 典型案例就是奴隸交易中的人們the standard example is people involved in the slave trade. 為了獲得煙草棉花the slave trade revolving around tobacco or cotton咖啡或糖塊的奴隸交易or coffee or sugar會

53、將來自不同語言背景的奴隸would tend to mix slaves and laborers和勞動者們混在一起from different language backgrounds,這也在某種程度上in part deliberately,謹慎地避免了可能的造反so as to avoid the possibility of revolt.這些來自不同文化的被奴役的個體what would happen is these people who were enslaved from different cultures會創(chuàng)造出一種臨時的交流系統(tǒng)would develop a makesh

54、ift communication system以便他們之間能夠互相交流so they could talk to one another.這就是所謂的"混雜語言"and this is called a "pidgin," p-i-d-g-i-n, a pidgin.他們會使用這種混雜語言來進行交流and this pidgin was how they would talk.而實際上混雜語言并不是一種語言and this pidgin was not a language.它只不過是從身邊的不同語言當中it was strings of words

55、borrowed借用了一些單詞串from the different languages around them以隨意的方式將它們放在一起and put together in sort of haphazard ways.問題是在這種社會中長大的兒童the question is what happens to the children究竟會怎樣who are raised in this society.你可能會以為他們也將學(xué)會這種混雜語言and you might expect it that they would come to speak a pidgin,但事實并非如此but th

56、ey dont.實際情況是在一代人的時間里what happens is, in the course of a single generation, 他們創(chuàng)造出了屬于自己的語言they develop their own language.他們用豐富的語法語態(tài)和語音they create a language創(chuàng)造出一種語言with rich syntax and morphology and phonology,我們馬上會來講這些術(shù)語的terms that well understand in a few minutes.他們創(chuàng)造的這種語言被稱為克利奧爾語and this language

57、that they create is called a "creole." 而這些叫做克利奧爾語的語言and languages that we know now as creoles,再次說明了它們的歷史the word refers back to their history.就是說它們是由混雜語言發(fā)展而來的that means that they were developed from pidgins. 這一點很有意思因為這表明and this is interesting because this suggests從某種程度上來說that to some exte

58、nt語言的使用理解以及學(xué)習(xí)能力the ability to use and understand and learn language是人類本性的一部分is part of human nature.它無需深遠的文化史it doesnt require an extensive cultural history.甚至任何一個普通的小孩rather, just about any normal child,即使并未接觸過成熟的語言環(huán)境even when not exposed to a full-fledged language,也可以創(chuàng)造語言can create a language.而近期更有些關(guān)于兒童學(xué)習(xí)手語的and more recently, theres been case studies of children 個案研究who acquire sign language.研究者在尼加拉瓜曾做過theres a wonderful case一個精彩的手語個案研究in nicaragua in sign language兒童們從本身并不熟悉手語的成年人那里where they acquire si