英語(yǔ)寫作復(fù)習(xí)提綱.doc

Academic writing for PhD students1. introduction 考試格式：先給一個(gè)文本，寫出move1、move2、move3的句號(hào)，然后再寫一下各個(gè)句子的作用，如move1-a等， 見(jiàn)P61例如：XXXXXXXXMove 1: a:1、2、3； b: 4、5Move 2:a:6、7Move 3: a:8、9Function: move 1-a :by showing that the general research area is important. move 1-b: 復(fù)習(xí)資料：Writing introduction section:Move 1 establishing a research territory 確立研究范圍 A: by showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way. (optional 可選，即可有可無(wú)) B: by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area. (obligatory, 必選)：文獻(xiàn)綜述。Move 2: establishing a niche：說(shuō)明該研究的必要性 A: by indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way. (obligatory, 必選)Move 3: occupy the niche A: by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research.（必選）:has two main variants:l Purposive(P): the author or authors indicate their main purpose or purposes.l Descriptive(D): the author or authors describe the main feature of their research.l Other elements: secondary aims of features; the contribution and value of your research; principle finding（原則，主義等發(fā)現(xiàn)）; an outline of the structure of your paper. B: by announcing principal finding（可選） C: by indicating the structure of the RP（可選）2、改錯(cuò)題（見(jiàn)書P14、15、16、17等處） effective sentence structure: P14-16Unity：一致、同一，例如先后語(yǔ)句的主語(yǔ)、時(shí)態(tài)等的統(tǒng)一Coherence：條理性、連貫性Conciseness：簡(jiǎn)明扼要，即不要過(guò)于啰嗦Emphasis：強(qiáng)調(diào)，重點(diǎn)Variety：變化, variety is the foundation of sentence style. Apart from variety in sentence length, other variations are variety in sentence beginning, in grammatical structure (simple, complex, compound-complex ), in rhetorical（修辭學(xué)）structure (loose松散的，periodic周期性, balanced平衡的), in the elements (words, phrases, clauses從句), and in sentence rhythms（節(jié)奏，韻律）. correct use of numbers（數(shù)字的正確使用）: P17-19 普通規(guī)則 如果數(shù)據(jù)放在句首，一定要用單詞，不能用數(shù)字：注意如果數(shù)字不能用少于四個(gè)單詞表示，則不應(yīng)放在句首（最重要的規(guī)則，必須遵守） 在寫作中，非特殊數(shù)據(jù)應(yīng)根據(jù)以下兩個(gè)規(guī)則寫為單詞：l 數(shù)據(jù)小于100時(shí)，則寫為單詞l 數(shù)據(jù)如果能用一或二個(gè)單詞表示，則寫為單詞 當(dāng)數(shù)據(jù)出現(xiàn)在時(shí)間單位前，則應(yīng)根據(jù)上面的規(guī)則來(lái)確定使用數(shù)字或單詞：注意在技術(shù)寫作中，不同過(guò)程的時(shí)間應(yīng)用精確的數(shù)字來(lái)表示。 如果句子中羅列了許多數(shù)據(jù)，則應(yīng)如下：l 如果數(shù)據(jù)個(gè)數(shù)不多，且所有數(shù)據(jù)僅包括一或兩個(gè)數(shù)字，則數(shù)據(jù)可以用數(shù)字或單詞來(lái)表示l 如果羅列的數(shù)據(jù)包括三或更多的數(shù)字，則應(yīng)使用數(shù)字 當(dāng)一個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)緊接著另一個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)，則第一個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)用單詞表示，而第二個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)用數(shù)字表示，例: five 16foot boards 當(dāng)數(shù)據(jù)用來(lái)表示精確的計(jì)量、距離、尺寸、容量、重量、錢數(shù)和比例時(shí)，用數(shù)字來(lái)表示數(shù)據(jù)，例如：7 feet 近似數(shù)據(jù)應(yīng)用單詞表示，在表示的時(shí)候應(yīng)取整數(shù)表示：注意：在技術(shù)寫作中，所有電學(xué)數(shù)據(jù)都應(yīng)用數(shù)字來(lái)表示，例如: nearly two hundred, 又如1500 ohms（電學(xué)） 除了特定原因外，四位數(shù)據(jù)不用逗號(hào)，而五位或更多位的數(shù)據(jù)，則應(yīng)從右邊起每三個(gè)數(shù)字用逗號(hào)分開(kāi)，例如：5000，又如12，000 當(dāng)數(shù)據(jù)小于1時(shí)，則應(yīng)在小數(shù)前放置0，例如：0.008，注意如果數(shù)據(jù)用列來(lái)表示，則小數(shù)點(diǎn)應(yīng)對(duì)其，例如：0.7530.00050.925 當(dāng)表示日期時(shí)，通常使用數(shù)字，數(shù)字通常緊隨月份，例如：july 5，1981 在地址中，房號(hào)用數(shù)字表示；如果街區(qū)名字中有小于100的數(shù)據(jù)，則用數(shù)字表示，而數(shù)據(jù)大于100時(shí)，則使用單詞表示，例如：3293 South Twelfth East更正：在地址中，房號(hào)用數(shù)字表示；如果街區(qū)名字中有小于100的數(shù)據(jù)，則街道名用單詞表示，而數(shù)據(jù)大于100時(shí)，則使用數(shù)字表示，例如：3293 South Twelfth East 在技術(shù)寫作中，時(shí)間用數(shù)字表示，其后通常緊跟a.m., p.m., A.M., P.M.。通常使用小寫形式，例如： 7a.m.。若所列的小時(shí)都包括分鐘，則用0，否則不用，例如：8 a.m. 又如 8：00a.m. 數(shù)字通常用來(lái)表示圖表名。在表示頁(yè)數(shù)時(shí)，page的首字母不用大寫，而其他的則需要大寫，例如：page 1, Chapter 5, Figure 1 世紀(jì)的名稱通常用單詞表示，且首字母不用大寫，例如：the twentieth century 歲數(shù)用數(shù)字表示，例如：8 years old 僅在法律文件中同時(shí)使用數(shù)字和單詞，但在技術(shù)寫作中不這樣用。當(dāng)作者選擇這種形式，則不需要重復(fù)，例如：500 watts，不應(yīng)寫成 five hundred (500) watts rules for fractions（分?jǐn)?shù)的規(guī)則） 所有的分?jǐn)?shù)都用單詞表示，例如：two thirds更正：所有的用來(lái)表示整體或近似的分?jǐn)?shù)都用單詞表示，例如：two thirds 用于特定數(shù)據(jù)形式的分?jǐn)?shù)應(yīng)用數(shù)字表示，例如：inch(或者 of an inch) 當(dāng)分?jǐn)?shù)作為復(fù)合形容詞的一部分，則必須使用連字符將分?jǐn)?shù)與緊隨的形容詞（書上的原文，但是我覺(jué)得有問(wèn)題，應(yīng)該是緊隨的量詞）連在一起，例如：inch 在復(fù)合數(shù)（又有整數(shù)又有分?jǐn)?shù)，例如假分?jǐn)?shù)）中，應(yīng)在整數(shù)和分?jǐn)?shù)之間使用連字符或者空格，例如：1 inches 當(dāng)復(fù)合數(shù)作為復(fù)合形容詞一部分時(shí)，整數(shù)與分?jǐn)?shù)之間使用空格，而在復(fù)合數(shù)和緊隨的形容詞之間使用連字符，例如：1 inch pipe 整篇文章的分?jǐn)?shù)格式必須一致，要么都使用連字符，要么都使用空格。注：不知道P20的大寫是否要考 3、paraphrasing（意譯）：見(jiàn)書P25-26 要注意paraphrasing應(yīng)與原文長(zhǎng)度相等。意譯、概括和評(píng)論是寫論文時(shí)的必須部分。當(dāng)我們引用他人的看法時(shí)，我們需要意譯和/或總結(jié)，并表明出處。進(jìn)行意譯的方式如下： 使用同義詞 改變單詞形式 使用不同的過(guò)渡詞，并進(jìn)行必要的結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整 在主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)和被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)之間進(jìn)行轉(zhuǎn)換 在肯定詞和否定詞之間進(jìn)行轉(zhuǎn)換 如果有可能，以作者和標(biāo)題結(jié)尾 不要改變專業(yè)術(shù)語(yǔ) 提及原文獻(xiàn)4、definition ：見(jiàn)書P47-48、49，通常是給幾個(gè)名詞選一個(gè)寫definition在正式的定義中，首先應(yīng)說(shuō)出該事物所屬的種類，然后再將其與本種類中其他事物區(qū)別。 the grammar of definitions定義的語(yǔ)法：P47 使用正確的冠詞 進(jìn)行必要的刪減 使用適當(dāng)?shù)慕樵~ five guidelines for writing a definition寫定義的五個(gè)指導(dǎo)：P48 使用精確的詞語(yǔ)來(lái)表示類別，例如：錯(cuò)：a microscope is an object, 對(duì)：a microscope is an instrument 要求更正式，例如：錯(cuò)：a solar cell is something that, 對(duì)： a solar cell is a device that 避免使用要定義詞語(yǔ)的不同形式來(lái)解釋該詞語(yǔ)，例如：錯(cuò)：erosion is a process during which the surface of the earth erodes 在定義中避免使用when 和where，例如：錯(cuò)：pollution is when 一些專業(yè)詞匯有不同的含義，因此在寫定義時(shí)，應(yīng)先定性說(shuō)明目的，例如：例：A cylinder as used in this report is a chamber in which force is exerted on the piston of a reciprocating engine. extended definitions擴(kuò)展定義：P49-50 分析成分，例見(jiàn)P49 舉例，例見(jiàn)P50 說(shuō)明發(fā)展歷程，例見(jiàn)P50 說(shuō)明應(yīng)用范圍，例見(jiàn)P50 說(shuō)明普通定義存在的問(wèn)題或例外，例見(jiàn)P50 預(yù)測(cè)未來(lái)，例見(jiàn)P50 contrastive definition通過(guò)對(duì)比下定義：P51-53，格式如下：如：the former deals with _ , while the latter is concerned with _ comparative definition通過(guò)比較下定義，兩種方法如下所列，好的比較定義通常包括這兩個(gè)方法，見(jiàn)書P53： 說(shuō)明該定義歷史上的變更 概述現(xiàn)代其他專家對(duì)于該定義的看法。5、作文（不多于200字，要求用PS結(jié)構(gòu)的文章）：見(jiàn)書P55，最好寫四小段。PS（問(wèn)題解答）結(jié)構(gòu)的文章通常包括4個(gè)部分： description of a situation描述相關(guān)情況：見(jiàn)書P55 identification of a problem辨別問(wèn)題 description of a solution描述解決方法 evaluation of the solution評(píng)估解決方法注意：有可能考書上P57的practice 23中的五個(gè)詞語(yǔ)（如下所列），尤其前三個(gè)： Private cars High education Population explosion Environmental pollution One related to your own field of study一、 Introduction分析文本，寫出每一步有哪些句子，具體功能。Move 1 a. Show the general research area is important/central/interesting/problematic/relevant in some way. 【一些標(biāo)志性詞、句】 Recently, there has been growing interest in The possibility of has generated wide interest in The development of is a classic problem in The development of has led to the hope that The has become a favorite topic for analysis Knowledge of has a great importance for The study of has become an important aspect of A central issue in is The has been extensively studied in recent years. Many investigators have recently turned to The relationship between has been investigated by many researchers. Many recent studies have focused on b. Introduce and reviewing items of previous research in the area. 【引述、時(shí)態(tài)】 一般過(guò)去時(shí)一般有具體施動(dòng)者（一般指某一項(xiàng)單獨(dú)研究） 現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)沒(méi)有具體施動(dòng)者（一般指某個(gè)領(lǐng)域） 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)不是某位研究者的某項(xiàng)具體研究（當(dāng)前某個(gè)知識(shí)的說(shuō)明）Move 2 (however，nevertheless提出問(wèn)題)Indicate a gap in the previous research.Raise a question about it. (Raise a question, a hypothesis, or a need.)Extend previous knowledge in some way.(Continue a line of research.)Move 3a. Outline purposes or state the nature of the present research. 【一些標(biāo)志句子】 (Purposive)The aim of the present paper is to give The main purpose of the experiment reported here was to This study was designed to evaluate It is the purpose of the present paper to provide (Descriptive)This paper reports on the results obtained In this paper we give preliminary results for The present work extends the use of the last model by We now report the interaction between The primary focus of this paper is on .b. Announce principal findings.c. Indicate the structure of the RP.二、 ParaphraseTo paraphrase means to completely reproduce the original meaning in our own words (but never include our own opinion).【Outlines】 Use synonyms.（用同義詞） Change word forms. （改變單詞形式） Use different transitional words and make the necessary structure adjustment. Change between Active Voice and Passive Voice. (主動(dòng)、被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)換) Change between the Affirmative and the Negative. (肯定句、否定句轉(zhuǎn)換) Be complete with author and title if possible. Do not change technical terms. Include reference to the original source.三、 Definition1、sentence definitionA formal definition is written as one or two complete sentences and consists of three parts:(1) the word to be defined(2) a general class to which the word belongs(3) the characteristics of the word being defined that distinguish that word from other members of the general classA(n) term is (a/an) class wh-word/that specific detail .【注意】（1） 正確使用冠詞（2） 做必要的刪減（3） 正確使用介詞【outlines】(1) find the prcise word or phrase for the class(2) be more formal(3) avoid using any form of your term in your definition(4) avoid using when and where in definitions(5) some technical terms have more than one meaning, a qualifying statement is included in a definition written for one specific purpose2、extended definitionsAn extended definition usually begins with a general, one-sentence definition and then becomes more specific as additional details are provided.【結(jié)構(gòu)】（1） an analysis of components（2） examples（3） a sense of historical change and development（4） a knowledge of applications（5） an awareness of problems with or exceptions to the general definition（6） future predictions【Contrastive Definitions】 To display your knowledge about two or more related terms.【Comparative Definitions】 To display your knowledge of the complexities surrounding key terms in your field of study. Two approaches of this type of task: (1) to present a historical account of how a concept has changed over time, (2) to present an overview of how various experts today view a concept differently.四、 PS text (Problem-solution text)(1) Description of a situation(2) Identification of a problem(3) Description of a solution(4) Evaluation of the solution五、 Erect errors南 京 航 空 航 天 大 學(xué)研究生考試試卷200 7 2008學(xué)年 第二 學(xué)期 博士生學(xué)術(shù)英語(yǔ)寫作 課程考試日期: 2009 年01 月 05 日 課程編號(hào)：命題教師: 施鳴鳴 陳彩莉Part IDirections: Identify the three moves in the following Introduction Sections and decide the general function of each move. Write your answers on the answer sheet. (20 points) Introduction 1The liquid sloshing in fuel containers of spacecraft has been given increasing attention with the development of liquid-filled spacecraft. At present, the linear equivalent mechanical model is commonly used to deal with the liquid sloshing in engineering practice. The model parameters, frequencies and damping of the sloshing with small amplitude have to be identified1. Theoretical analysis of damping in liquid sloshing with small amplitude can be traced back to Stokes2 who calculated the flow over an oscillating plane and remarked that the flow over an oscillating curved boundary may be approximated with a relatively good accuracy by regarding each element of the boundary as an infinite plane oscillating with the same velocity. But there is a great difference between the theoretical results and measured values. It was pointed out in Ref. 3 that the damping of liquid sloshing is usually caused by: (i) viscous dissipation at a rigid boundary of the container, (ii) viscous dissipation at the free surface, which may be covered by a viscoelastic film, (iii) viscous damping in the interior fluid，and (iv) capillary hysteresis at a contact line. Miles and Henderson3,4, and Martel et a1.5 did a series of analyses on the sloshing damping in a full cylinder container and proposed to compute the rigid boundary damping based on Stokes theory and the inner damping based on Lambs dissipation and take their sum as the total damping. Hexi Baoin6 presented an eigenvalue equation for computing the sloshing damping in the interior fluid and the frequencies. According to these studies it can be said that the liquid sloshing damping is very complicated and in most cases it is impossible to get the exact value. Therefore, to estimate the range may be a better way for engineering practice. In the present paper, a damping estimation scheme based on FEM is proposed.Introduction 21Aircraft seats are an airlines product. 2Similar to any other product, a larger quantity secures sales, while extra inventory incurs costs.3For airlines, providing larger capacities implies higher operating costs. 4On the other hand, aircraft seats are perishable, that is, unsold seats at the departure of the flight are wasted. 5Consequently, the ideal strategy is to provide just the right number of seats to passengers at the right price. 6The first of these two ideals is addressed by the fleet assignment process, which is the subject of the present paper, while the second falls in the purview of yield or revenue management. 7The fleet assignment problem (FAP) deals with assigning aircraft types, each having a different capacity, to the scheduled flights, based on equipment capabilities and availabilities, operational costs, and potential revenues. 8An airlines fleeting decision highly impacts their revenues: Assigning a smaller aircraft than needed on a flight will result in spilled (i.e., lost) customers due to insufficient capacity; assigning a larger aircraft will result in spoiled (i.e., unsold) seats, and presumably higher operational costs. 9Thus, FAP constitutes an essential component of an airlines overall scheduling process. 10However, due to the large number of flights scheduled each day, which can easily reach thousands for a major airline, and the dependency of the FAP on other airline processes such as schedule design, crew scheduling, aircraft routing, maintenance planning, and revenue management, solving the FAP has always been a challenging task for the airlines. 11As a result, it is not surprising that the FAP has been extensively studied in the Operations Research literature. 12However, most of the traditional approaches proposed for the FAP depend on solving the FAP in isolation from the other airline scheduling processes and under restrictive assumptions such as considering the same-every-day schedule; and using point forecasts for flight-based demands instead of itinerary-based or path-based demands.13Furthermore, customers rejected from their requested itineraries (due to capacity restrictions) are often assumed to be lost. 14In reality, they may choose to take another route that is comparable to their first choice itinerary in terms of the origin, destination, and time-frame (i.e., they may be recaptured).15The recapture effect has mostly been ignored in analytical studies until very recently.16Recent advances in information technology, coupled with an increasingly competitive marketplace, have motivated researchers to consider new approaches for the FAP over the last decade. 17These new directions include: (1) integrating the FAP with other airline decision processes such as schedule design, aircraft maintenance routing, and crew scheduling; (2) proposing solution techniques that include additional considerations into the traditional fleeting models, such as considering itinerary-based demand forecasts and the recapture effect, as well as investigating the effectiveness of alternative approaches such as randomized search procedures; and (3) studying dynamic fleeting mechanisms that update the initial fleeting solution as departures approach and more information on demand patterns is gathered, thus providing a more effective way to match the airlines supply with demand.18The aim of this paper is to present a tutorial on the basic and enhanced models and approaches that have been developed for the FAP as well as to suggest some future research directions in this arena.19For the sake of exposition, we focus on several key recent papers on the FAP, instead of providing an exhaustive survey in this area, for which we refer the interested readers to the review articles by Gopalan and Talluri (1998), Yu and Yang (1998), Barnhart et al. (2004), Clarke and Smith (2004), and Klabjan (in press). 20A special issue of Transportation Science (Ball, 2004) also provides a variety of topics on aviation operations research.21The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: We first introduce the terminology that will be used throughout this paper in Section 2. 22We then proceed to describe the various fleet assignment models (FAM) in the subsequent sections. 23Specifically, the basic FAM as well as the proposed solution approaches are discussed in Section 3. 24Section 4 presents various approaches that aim at integrating the FAM with other airline decision processes. 25Section 5 addresses enhanced FAMs that include certain additional considerations, and Section 6 covers some dynamic fleeting models. 26Finally, Section 7 concludes this paper with some recommendations for future research directions in this area.Part II A. Directions: Correct or improve the following sentences. Write your answers on the answer sheet. (15 points, 3 points each)1. A well-dressed man admitted us to the house, and we later learned that he was a thief.2. Chemical literature is doubling every eight years in volume. Every ten to twelve years there is twice as much biomedical material published.3. Glancing out of the window, a beautiful view attracted my attention.4. In order to pick out fish bones