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一，題目 a study on Chinese negative transfer to English writing of junior middle school students 漢語對初中生英語寫作的負遷移研究二，目的意義 英語寫作是英語教學四項基本技能之一，是外語教學過程中不可或缺的一環(huán)。作為一種書面形式的主動性技能，英語寫作是一種綜合運用英語知識的實踐活動，也是一項創(chuàng)造性的技能能夠客觀地反映學生的思維組織能力和語言表達能力。通過寫作練習，教師可藉以了解學生的語言知識和運用技能，了解他們的薄弱環(huán)節(jié)，從而更有的放矢地改進教學工作。然而，在漢語背景下，英語寫作的方方面面都受到母語的負遷移的影響，從詞匯到句法，從句子到篇章，從思維到文化，等等。如何審視和理解語言與文化、社會的關系，跨語言和文化造成的修辭差異是否存在，又如何影響寫作活動的過程等等，這些都是需要國內英語寫作研究者加緊解決和趕上的地方。而目前的國內英語寫作研究很不平衡，幾乎全部集中于大學階段的英語寫作，對初高中階段的英語寫作研究不夠重視。而英語技能尤其是寫作技能的培養(yǎng)是一個內在、持續(xù)的過程，不可能忽視基礎階段的過程，一蹴而就。所以，研究漢語負遷移對初中生英語寫作的影響并進而提出相應的教學策略，能夠有效地引起英語初學者者對語言形式的注意，檢驗目標語的運作并促使學習者有意識地使用目標語進行反思，幫助學習者消化語言知識，提高英語綜合能力水平。Every one will make errors in the process of learning a foreign languageAccording to the previous studies，one of the reasons that cause the errors is negative transfer of the native languageAlthough there are many writing investigations of domestic researchers, they are almost about the college students writing. However, researchers pay little attention on junior students writing in this field. Whats more, the development of English skills, especially English writing skills is an intrinsic and continued process, it is an impossible overlooked process. Therefore, this thesis attempts to investigate and analyze how and in which aspect the negative transfer of Chinese influences the errors in the junior school studentswritings and explore the measures we should take to reduce the impact of the negative transfer in order to develop writing skills of junior school studentsThe purpose of the thesis is to explore the relationship between junior school students English writings and negative transfer of mother tongueBased on the related theories such as contrastive analysis，error analysis and interlanguage， the thesis analyzes the manifestation of negative transfer on the junior school studentsEnglish writings from several aspects such as morphology，lexis，syntactic，discourse and culture三，文獻綜述 The development of Language Transfer Theory has gone through three stages of process：contrastive analysis hypothesis，error analysis theory and inter-language theoryContrastive analysis hypothesis was raised based on negative transfer theory and behaviorist theory in the 1950sHowever，as language transfer theory was criticized，it lost its dominant position since the 1960sIn the late 1970s，error analysis and inter-language theory got developmentResearchers began to explain language transfer phenomena by associating contrastive analysis and error analysis with inter-language theoryLANGUAGE TRANSFERSelinker(1969)says，“Language transfer is one of five central processes underlying interlanguage performance which results in the fossilization of items，rules，and subsystems from native language According to Sharwood Smith(1983)，the term transfer, especially used in the 1 960s and 1970s，refers to the influence of the mother tongueL1 on the learners performance in development of a given target language Dechert in 1 984 defines，“Language transfer is the activation of a certain knowledge base，procedure，or operator in one area of language or languages with the effect to perform the same operation in another similar area of language or languages”(周衛(wèi)京2005) Gass(1 987)believes，“The notion of language transfer involves the use of native language(or other language)information in the acquisition of a second(or additional)language” Lehiste(1 988)thinks it deviates from the norms of either language that occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarities with more than one languageOdlin (1989:27) pointed out that language transfer (LT) is “the influence resulting from the differences and similarities between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.” But Odlin(1989：28)also stated that if there is no proper definition of language, it is difficult to offer a accurate and precise definition of transferRichards (2000) suggested the definition of LT should be “the influence of one language on the acquisition of another”.Language transfer can be divided into positive and negative transfer due to its impact on L2 acquisition. Both types of transfer are known as the automatic and subconscious application of old action in different learning environment (Dulay 1982:101)On the basis of the information , language transfer“can explain most of the errors found in the writing of second language learnerPositive transfer is the transfer that can facilitate second language learning because of the similarities of different languages in the world. The positive effects are more obvious when learners with different mother tongues studied the same target language (Odlin, 1989). Negative transfer, known as interference, is the misuse of patterns and rules of mother tongue, which leads to errors or inappropriate forms in L2 acquisition (Richard, 2002). Negative Transfer is considered as the major cause of error occurred in L2 acquisition (Lado, 1957; Corder, 1971).CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS The pattern of Contrastive Analysis was first put forward by Charles Fries, who devised the method for contrastive teaching and learning in 1927His major thought is that the second language learners can transfer the modes and structures of native language involuntarily into the target languageHe proposed that effective teaching data should be compiled by comparing the mother tongue with the target language of learners In 1945，Charles Fries thought the description of the TL compared with that of the NL can benefit the preparations for teaching materials (Dulay&Butt，1974)Such a statement inspired a number of contrastive analyses and the value of language contrast was thus first acknowledged in language teaching and the selection of teaching materials In the book，Lado(1957)presented that“compare any two languages and cultures to find and describe the problems that the learners of one of the languages will meet in learning the otherThe consequences of such comparisons have demonstrated to be valuable for the arrangement of teaching materials，tests，and language learning experiments” Lado(1957) also said that：”the student who begin to learn a foreign 1anguage will discover some characteristics are easily to understand and others very difficult to learnThose parts which are similar to his mother tongue will be easy to learn(positive transfer occurs)and those parts which are difierent will be hardThe teacher who has contrasted the second language with the mother tongue of the students will have a better understanding of the studentsreal problems”Adopting behaviorism and structuralism theory to language teaching, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) believed that the biggest block to second language learning and acquisition is the interference of native language system, and errors occur mainly because the second language learners transfer the native language habits into the target language learning. CAH also emphasized that the first language interference will take place whenever the target language differs from the native language, and the bigger the differences between the target language and the native language, the greater the difficulties will be for learners.In the 1960s Contrastive Analysis came into fashion which aimed to find the mismatches or differences through comparing the forms and meanings between two languages. But soon Contrastive Analysis was found far from satisfactory, because the predictions of students errors were not accurate.ERROR ANALYSISRichard (1971) made a distinguish between interlingual errors and intralingual errors in his paper, pointing out that the interlingual errors are caused by learners mother tongue interference on the target language learning, while the intralingual errors origin from learners insufficient knowledge of the rule of the target language.Corder(1974) suggests five procedures in doing EA(1)Collection of samples of learner language; (2)Identification of errors; (3)Classification of errors; (4)Explanation of errors;(5)Evaluation of errors. Dulay (1982) gave a linguistic category classification “carries out specific classification of errors according to the linguistic categories, in terms of where the errors is located in the overall system of the target language based on the linguistic item which is affected by the error”. This type of classification indicates on which level (or in which component) of language the error is located: in phonology, graphology, grammar, lexis, text, discourse and so on.Error is the use of a linguistic form(in the speech or writing of a second or foreign language)in a way which a fluent or native speaker of the language regards as showing faulty or incomplete learning(Richards，Platt，J&Platt，H，2000).James (2001) classified errors into three levels of language: substance, text and discourse. Each level allows further classification, in terms of the following five categories: omission, redundancy, misselection, misordering and blends. Substance deals with phonological and graphological systems. Text involves lexico-grammatical systems. Discourse refers to formulation or processing on the discourse level. James used text in a much broader sense, the errors in the level of text refer to any instance of language that result from ignorance and misapplication of the lexico-grammatical rules of the target language.Error analysis give such a hypothesis：second language learning process is the same as that of native language which are both a creative hypothesis testing processSo the errors second language learners committed reflect the extent to which second language rules has been acquired From this point of view，making errors is not a bad thingJust as the linguist Corder said：making errors is inevitable，which is also an indispensable part of the leaming processThis opinion changed the way in which people treat errors INTERLANGUAGEThe term “interlangauge” was first introduced by American linguist Selinker(1972) to refer to the learners language system, which is independent of both the L1 system and the L2 system that the learner is learning. Selinker considered interlanguage as a separate language system of second language learner, which is in the intermediate level between the first language and the second language. The Theory of IL may be considered to incorporate the assumptions of both CA and EACA contrasts the learnersNL with TL，EA involves the contrast between the learnersperformance and TL，and IL takes all the three systems into consideration，explicitly incorporating the contrastive analysis of the learnersIL with both their NL and TL(Swan &Smith，1987) Interlanguage reflect two related but different concepts. Firstly, it relers to the language structure system which learners construct on the different stages of language developmentSecondly，it refers to a series of connective gradual system and also can be called interlanguage continuumThe system exists between native language and target language，and gradually changes with the increasing of language input.RESEARCH AT HOME Many experiments were carried out by a large number of educators at home from different levels and angles of Chinese and EnglishWang(1990)analyzed the distinctions between Chinese and English in numeralsThen a detailed list of words in the two languages were compared and contrasted by Zhang&Zhang(1994)who looked into the differences in terms of the equivalents, and culture-loaded meanings. Some research claims that 51of the errors made by EFL learners of Chinese result from NL transfer(束定芳1996) Long(龍躍2003)in Negative Transfe of Native Culture in English Writing, puts forward the viewpoint that Chinese students tend to perform English writing unconsciously in Chinese thinking pattern，which influences the result of regarding subjects and expressing thought，and that native culture often exegs negative effect on FL learning and writing；namely, negative transfer of the NL interferes FLL，leading to writing errorsYu Liming (2004) in Language Transfer and Second Language Acquisition points out that in both Chinese and English the word order of sentence is SVO, but sometimes the Chinese speakers will change the word order into SOV due to semantic and pragmatic reasons. Thus learners are likely to make sentences that do not exist in English at all by word-for-word translation of their mother tongue. Besides that, Yu (2004) discovered some types of errors caused by the negative transfer of mother tongue such as subject-verb disagreement, misuse of adverbials, run-on-sentences and so on.In recent years，domestic linguists and researchers have achieved a lot in the study of language transfer from the perspective of college studentsEnglish writingThe main representatives are as follows：(1) effect that Chinese has on English writing；(2)features in language and discourse of Chinese studentsEnglish writing；(3)factors that influence Chinese studentsEnglish writing ability；(4)suggestions on how to improve the teaching of English writing In ChinaExperimental research by Guo&Liu(郭純潔&劉芳1997)，Wen&Guo(文秋芳&郭純潔 1998)and Wang(王立非2006)come to such findings as：(1)one of great characteristics existing in English writings of Chinese students is dependence on the thinking pattern of Chinese，which goes through and has multi-effect on the process of English writing；(2)NL Level directly or indirectly influences English writing ability；(3)the abilities of writing， lexis and discourse of NL affect English writing ability notablyAs far as semantic differences，Gao Yihong(1993)specifically examines change of meaning in words and claims the close link between the change of meaning and social cultural changes，such as “comrade and “individualismGuo Chunjie and Liu Fang(1997)did a dynamic research on language transfer by investigating the students think-aloud processThe result showed that the target language learners mother tongue should be responsible for the output of the inference process，and it seemed that there is great difference between the output of the first language and that of the second languageLiu Donghong(2002)studied the influence of the sophomoresmother tongue on their writing from the perspective of native language strategyDai Weidong and Wang Dongs(2002)research concentrated on four problems that have an especially important bearing on the study of transfer：definition,comparison，prediction and generalizationIt can be argued that if there are great differences between two languages，the mother tongue interference must be severe.Wang(2004)proposes that L1 interference is often found on the syntactic level in Chinese studentsEnglish writing，such as agreement and word-orderIt is also found that the students resort to Chinese to make up for the inadequacy in their knowledge of English when they meet difficulties in writingConcerning language and discourse levels in English writing of Chinese students，Ni(倪嵐2000) studies on lexis；Yang&Wen(楊玉晨&聞兆榮1994)，syntax；Wang&Li(王墨希&李津1993)，discourseTheir studies draw the conclusions：(1)tendency to use basic vocabulary in stead of advanced vocabulary；(2)a high frequency of article errors；(3) overproduction of the second personal pronouns，conjunctions and adjectives； (4) underproduction of because-adverbial clause, that-attributive clause and that-objective clause；(5)majorities of simple sentences，next to compound ones and fewest in coordinate clauses；(6) occurrence to numbers of sentences initiated by adverbial clauses and conjuncted by commas；(7)spoken styleTHE AUTHORS OPINION The researches mentioned above all indicate that native language plays an indispensable role in the second language acquisitionThe learning process is influenced and restricted by many factorsIn the field of SLA ,errors committed by the leamers are of great significanceThey are considered a welcome signal in that learners and researchers can test the output of acquiring linguistic knowledgeErrors function as the key to understanding the process of FLL in the eyes of teachers，so identifying errors students make doesnt mean judging or labeling their competence，but to refine ways of studentslearning and teachersteachingSome studies revealed that the majority of learner errors were not caused by L1 interference and that many of the predictions made by CA proved to be superficial When predictions arising from CA were finally subject to empirical tests，serious flaws emerged，and when linguists strived to predict errors according to CA,they failed to predict all or overpredicted someHowever, CA is nevertheless a very important theory on transferCA marks the beginning of peoples serious consideration and observation of The phenomenon of language transfer and their increasing yet capricious attention to the importance of the NL in TL learning. Compared with CA,EA have realized the importance of learners，revealing what is going on in the learnersminds. EA still serves as an effective mode of SLA researchIn this thesis，EA is used for explanation of transfer errors in the subjectsEnglish writings Based on their studies and related theories，the present research takes the subjects transfer errors into consideration to explore the influence of the mother tongue，expecting to have a rather profound and meticulous study on negative transfer of Chinese in studentsEnglish writingTo sum up，the domestic studies of influence of native language start late and most researches are built on the foreign studiesIn addition，there are many people do research on the negative transfer of Chinese on the English writingHowever,their subjects are not confined to junior school studentsA