2_a_brief_history_of_safety.doc

幻燈片12 Brief History of safety安全發(fā)展簡史幻燈片2詞匯l *compensation n.補償, 賠償l *pressure vessel n.壓力容器l *operations research n.作業(yè)研究, 運籌學l *legitimacy 合法（性），正統(tǒng)性，正確性，合理性l *Propellant adj.推進的，n. 推進物l Silo n. 筒倉，地窖，空豎井，（導彈）發(fā)射井l deficiency n. 缺乏，不足；缺點，不足之處l *procurement contracts 采購合同l cross-fertilize v.異花受精, 雜交幻燈片3Translation paragraph 1l Of course, the need for safety has always been with us. l 當然，我們隨時都需要安全。 l One of the earliest written references to safety is from the Code of Hammurabi, around 1750 B. C. l 一個最早的有關(guān)安全的書面參考資料出自大約公元前1750年的罕默拉比法典?；脽羝?Translation paragraph 1l His codes stated that if a house was built and it fell due to poor construction, killing the owner, then the builder himself would be put to death. l 這部法典規(guī)定，如果一座房子建好后，由于拙劣的建造而倒塌了，致使房屋的主人死亡，那么建造者自己將會處以死刑。l The first laws covering compensation for injuries were codified in the Middle Ages.l 第一部涉及工傷賠償?shù)姆稍谥惺兰o被編成法典。 幻燈片5Translation paragraph 2l Around 1834, Lloyds Register of British and Foreign Shipping was created, institutionalizing the concept of safety and risk analysis. l 在1834年左右，勞埃德船級社創(chuàng)建，使安全和風險分析的概念制度化。l In 1877 Massachusetts passed a law to safeguard machinery and also created employers liability laws. l 1877年，馬薩諸塞州通過了一部旨在保護機械法律，并制定了雇主責任法。 幻燈片6Lloyds Register of Shippingl 世界上成立最早的船級社，為英國的勞埃德船級社的簡稱。它于1760年在英國倫敦愛德華勞埃德咖啡館成立，由此得名。1949年不列顛船舶登記社并入勞氏船級社。勞氏船級社總部設(shè)在倫敦，分支驗船機構(gòu)遍布世界上 280個主要港口，是世界上規(guī)模最大的船級社。勞氏船級社不受政府干預和資助，沒有股東，經(jīng)濟來源依靠檢驗工作收取的費用。l 其成立宗旨在于制定并修訂船舶之建造、操作及維修標準，藉以評定船舶等級。同時并定期出版”Lloyds Register of British and Foreign Shipping”刊物勞氏船名錄 ，即該驗船協(xié)會之船舶年鑒。年鑒內(nèi)容記載所有經(jīng)Lloyds協(xié)會分級的船舶詳細數(shù)據(jù)，以及世界上其它總噸位在100噸以上的所有船舶數(shù)據(jù)?；脽羝?Lloyds Register of Shippingl 船級是表示船舶技術(shù)狀態(tài)的一種指標。在國際航運界，凡注冊總噸在100噸以上的海運船舶，必須在某船級社或船舶檢驗機構(gòu)監(jiān)督之下進行監(jiān)造。在船舶開始建造之前，船舶各部分的規(guī)格須經(jīng)船級社或船舶檢驗機構(gòu)批準。每艘船建造完畢，由船級社或船舶檢驗局對船體、船上機器設(shè)備、吃水標志等項目和性能進行鑒定，發(fā)給船級證書。證書有效期一般為4年，期滿后需重新予以鑒定。l 船舶入級可保證船舶航行安全，有利于國家對船舶進行技術(shù)監(jiān)督，便于租船人和托運人選擇適當?shù)拇?，以滿足進出口貨物運輸?shù)男枰?，便于保險公司決定船、貨的保險費用。幻燈片8挪威船級社Register of Shipping英國勞氏Lloyds Register of Shipping”（簡稱LR）中國船級社美國船級社American Bureau of Shipping”（簡稱AB）法國船級社日本海事協(xié)會Nippon Kaiji Kyokai”(簡稱NK)挪威船級社幻燈片9Translation paragraph 3l At the end of the 19th century, a rash of boiler exploding gave urgency and impetus to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers to create the Boiler and Pressure Vessel design codes and standards. l 19世紀末，鍋爐爆炸事件頻繁發(fā)生，成為亟待解決的緊急問題，促使美國機械工程師協(xié)會制定了鍋爐和壓力容器設(shè)計規(guī)范和標準。從1911年開始，安全團體逐漸在美國形成，并于1913年成立了國家安全委員會?；脽羝?0Translation paragraph 3l Beginning in 1911 the United States saw safety groups forming, and the National Safety Council was founded in 1913.l 從1911年開始，安全團體逐漸在美國形成，并于1913年成立了國家安全委員會?；脽羝?1Translation paragraph 4l Around the 1920s private companies started to create formalized safety programs. l 20世紀20年代左右，一些私營企業(yè)開始制定正式的安全程序。 l The early 1930s was the beginning of the implementation of accident prevention programs across the United States. l 30年代早期，是美國在全國范圍內(nèi)執(zhí)行事故預防程序的開端。l By the end of the decade, the American National Standards Institute had published hundreds of industrial manuals.l 到了30年代后期，美國國家標準學會已經(jīng)發(fā)布了上百部工業(yè)指南?；脽羝?2Translation paragraph 5l Most of the current safety techniques and concepts were born at the end of World War . l 現(xiàn)在的安全技術(shù)和概念大多數(shù)產(chǎn)生于二次世界大戰(zhàn)末期。 l Operations research led the way, suggesting that the scientific method could be applied to the safety profession. l 運籌學的應用于開辟了科學方法應用于安全專業(yè)的道路。l In fact, operations research gave some legitimacy to the use of quantitative analysis in predicting accidents.l 事實上，運籌學給出了將定量分析應用于事故預測上的合理性的依據(jù)?；脽羝?3Translation paragraph 6l However, the system safety concept and profession really started during the American military missile and nuclear programs in the 1950s and 1960s. l 然而，系統(tǒng)安全的概念和專業(yè)真正產(chǎn)生于20世紀50年代到60年代的美國軍事導彈和核計劃時期。 l Liquid-propellant missiles exploded frequently and unexpectedly. l 液體燃料推進導彈經(jīng)常出人意料的爆炸?；脽羝?4Translation paragraph 6l During that period the Atlas and Titan programs saw many missiles blow up in their silos during practice operations. l 在那個時期，大力神計劃見證了許多導彈在實際操作過程中于發(fā)射井中爆炸的事故。 l Some of the accident investigations found that these failures were due to the design problems, operations deficiencies and poor management decisions. l 從一些事故調(diào)查結(jié)果中發(fā)現(xiàn)，這些故障是源于設(shè)計問題、操作缺陷和管理決策失誤?；脽羝?5Translation paragraph 7l Because of the loss of thousands aircraft and pilots during the same time frame, the U. S. Air Force started to pull together the concepts of system safety, and in April 1962 published BSD Exhibit 62-41, “System Safety Engineering for the Development of Air Force Ballistic Missiles.”l 由于在同一段時間內(nèi)，美國空軍損失了數(shù)以千計的飛行器和飛行員，因此他們開始對系統(tǒng)安全的概念進行收集整理，并于1962年4月發(fā)布了BSD展品62-41，即“關(guān)于發(fā)展空軍彈道導彈系統(tǒng)安全工程”。l Ballistic Missiles彈道導彈幻燈片16Translation paragraph 8l Safety was also starting to enter the public mind. Ralph Nader publicized safety concerns during the mid-1960s and started making people aware of how dangerous cars really were with his book, Unsafe at Any Speed (published in 1965, Grossman, NY). l 安全也開始逐漸進入公眾意識中。在20世紀60年代中期Ralph Nader宣揚要關(guān)注安全，并以他的任何速度都不安全（發(fā)表于1965年，Grossman，紐約）一書，開始讓人們意識到汽車有多么危險。l He continued being a powerful voice to the U. S. Congress to bring automobile design under federal control and to regulate consumer protection.l 他繼續(xù)強烈呼吁美國國會應將汽車設(shè)計納入聯(lián)邦管理之下，并規(guī)范消費者保護法?；脽羝?7Translation paragraph 9l In the United Kingdom in the early 1960s, Imperial Chemical Industries started developing the concept of the HAZOP study (a chemical industry safety analysis). l In 1974 it was presented at an American Institute of Chemical Engineers conference on loss prevention.l 20世紀60年代早期，在英國，皇家化學工業(yè)界開始發(fā)展HAZOP(危險與可操作性研究)研究（一種化學工業(yè)安全分析法）的概念，并在1974年的美國化學工程師學會的一次有關(guān)損失預防的會議上提出了這一概念?；脽羝?8Translation paragraph 10l The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) sponsored government-industry conferences in the late 1960s and early 1970s to address system safety. l 在20世紀60年代末70年代初，美國國家航空與宇宙航行局發(fā)起了政府-行業(yè)研討會，提出系統(tǒng)安全問題。l Part of this was safety technology transfer from the “man-rating” program-to develop ballistic missiles safe enough to carry humans into space-of the Mercury program.l 部分議題是有關(guān)墨丘利神計劃的中人類進入太空計劃的安全技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)讓問題，人類進入太空計劃旨在開發(fā)具有足夠安全性能的能將人類送入太空的彈道導彈。幻燈片19Translation paragraph 11l In 1970 the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) published industrial safety requirements. l 1970年，職業(yè)安全與健康管理總署公布了工業(yè)安全要求。l Later in the decade, the U.S. military published Mil-Std-882, “Requirements for System Safety Program for Systems and Associated Subsystems and Equipment.” l 70年代后期，美國軍隊發(fā)布了軍標822：關(guān)于系統(tǒng)和相關(guān)子系統(tǒng)與設(shè)備的系統(tǒng)安全程序要求。幻燈片20Translation paragraph 11l This document is still considered the cornerstone of the system safety profession. l 這一文獻至今仍被認為是系統(tǒng)安全專業(yè)的基礎(chǔ)。 l It is one of the most cited requirements in procurement contracts. l 這是一部在采購合同中引用得最多的要求。l Most of the safety analysis techniques were created during the heady days of safety from the 1950s to the 1980s.l 大多數(shù)安全分析技術(shù)都產(chǎn)生于20世紀50年代到80年代這一段對于安全的摸索的時期?；脽羝?1Translation paragraph 12l OSHA pu