國外組織行為學(xué)課件皮爾森ch03.ppt

1、Chapter 3 Perception, Attribution, and Diversity,Learning Objectives,Define perception and discuss some of the general factors that influence perception. Explain social identity theory and Bruners model of the perceptual process. Describe the main biases in person perception. Describe how people for

2、m attributions about the causes of behaviour. Discuss various biases in attribution.,Learning Objectives (continued),Discuss the concepts of workforce diversity and valuing diversity. Discuss how racial, ethnic, gender, and age stereotypes affect organizational behaviour and what organizations can d

3、o to manage diversity.,Learning Objectives (continued),Define trust perceptions and perceived organizational support and describe organizational support theory. Discuss person perception and perceptual biases in human resources.,What Is Perception?,The process of interpreting the messages of our sen

4、ses to provide order and meaning to the environment. People base their actions on the interpretation of reality that their perceptual system provides, rather than on reality itself.,Components of Perception,Perception has three components: A perceiver A target that is being perceived Some situationa

5、l context in which the perception is occurring Each component influences the perceivers impression or interpretation of the target.,Factors that Influence Perception,The Perceiver,Past experiences lead the perceiver to develop expectations that affect current perceptions. Needs unconsciously influen

6、ce perceptions by causing us to perceive what we wish to perceive. Emotions, such as anger, happiness, or fear, can influence our perceptions.,Perceptual Defence,The tendency for the perceptual system to defend the perceiver against unpleasant emotions. People often “see what they want to see” and “

7、hear what they want to hear.” Our perceptual system works to ensure we do not see or hear things that are threatening.,The Target,Ambiguous targets are especially susceptible to interpretation and the addition of meaning. Perceivers have a need to resolve ambiguities. The perceiver does not or canno

8、t use all the information provided by the target. A reduction in ambiguity might not be accompanied by greater accuracy.,The Situation,Perception occurs in some situational context, and this context can affect what is perceived. The most important effect that the situation can have is to add informa

9、tion about the target. The perception of a target can change with the situation even when the perceiver and target remain the same.,Social Identity Theory,People form perceptions of themselves based on their characteristics and memberships in social categories. Our sense of self is composed of a per

10、sonal identity and a social identity.,Social Identity Theory (continued),Personal identity is based on our unique characteristics (e.g., interests). Social identity is based on our perception that we belong to various social groups (e.g., gender). Personal and social identities help us answer the qu

11、estion: “Who am I?”,Social Identity Theory (continued),We perceive ourselves and others as embodying the most typical attributes of a category or what are called “prototypes.” Social identities are relational and comparative. People tend to perceive members of their own social categories in more pos

12、itive and favourable ways.,Bruners Model of the Perceptual Process,When the perceiver encounters an unfamiliar target, the perceiver is very open to the informational cues in the target and the situation. The perceiver will actively seek out cues to resolve ambiguity. As the perceiver encounters som

13、e familiar cues, a crude categorization of the target is made.,Bruners Model of the Perceptual Process (continued),The search for cues then becomes less open and more selective. The perceiver will search for cues that confirm the categorization of the target. As the categorization becomes stronger,

14、the perceiver will ignore or even distort cues that violate initial perceptions.,Bruners Model of the Perceptual Process: An Example,Perception is Selective,Perceivers do not use all of the available cues, and those they use are given special emphasis. Perception is efficient but this can aid and hi

15、nder perceptual accuracy.,Perceptual Constancy,The tendency for the target to be perceived in the same way over time and across situations. “Getting off on the wrong foot.”,Perceptual Consistency,The tendency to select, ignore, and distort cues so that they fit together to form a homogenous picture

16、of the target. We strive for consistency in our perception of people.,Basic Biases in Person Perception,The impressions we form of others are susceptible to a number of perceptual biases: Primacy and recency effects Reliance on central traits Implicit personality theories Projection Stereotyping,Pri

17、macy and Recency Effects,The reliance on early cues or first impressions is known as the primacy effect. Primacy often has a lasting impact. The tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions is known as the recency effect.,Reliance on Central Traits,People tend to organize thei

18、r perceptions around central traits. Central traits are personal characteristics of a target person that are of particular interest to a perceiver. Central traits often have a very powerful influence on our perceptions of others.,Reliance on Central Traits (continued),Physical appearance is a common

19、 central trait in work settings. Conventionally attractive people fare better than unattractive people in terms of a variety of job-related outcomes (e.g., getting hired).,Reliance on Central Traits (continued),Physical height is an obvious aspect of physical appearance that is related to job perfor

20、mance, promotions, and career success. Individuals who are overweight tend to be evaluated negatively on a number of workplace outcomes.,Implicit Personality Theories,Personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together. Perhaps you expect hardworking people to also

21、 be honest, or people of average intelligence to be most friendly. If such implicit theories are inaccurate, they provide a basis for misunderstanding.,Projection,The tendency for perceivers to attribute their own thoughts and feelings to others. In some cases, projection is an efficient and sensibl

22、e perceptual strategy. Projection can lead to perceptual difficulties and can serve as a form of perceptual defence.,Stereotyping,The tendency to generalize about people in a social category and ignore variations among them. Categories on which people might base a stereotype include race, age, gende

23、r, ethnic background, social class, and occupation.,Stereotyping (continued),There are three specific aspects to stereotyping: We distinguish some category of people We assume that the individuals in this category have certain traits We perceive that everyone in this category possesses these traits,

24、Stereotyping (continued),People can evoke stereotypes with incredibly little information. Stereotypes help us develop impressions of ambiguous targets. Most stereotypes are inaccurate, especially when we use them to develop perceptions of specific individuals.,Why Do Stereotypes Persist?,Several fac

25、tors work to reinforce inaccurate stereotypes. Even incorrect stereotypes help us process information about others quickly and efficiently. Inaccurate stereotypes are often reinforced by selective perception.,Attribution: Perceiving Causes and Motives,Attribution is the process by which we assign ca

26、uses or motives to explain peoples behaviour. An important goal is to determine whether some behaviour is caused by dispositional or situational factors.,Dispositional Attributions,Dispositional attributions suggest that some personality or intellectual characteristic unique to the person is respons

27、ible for the behaviour. Intelligence, greed, friendliness, or laziness.,Situational Attributions,Situational attributions suggest that the external situation or environment in which the target person exists was responsible for the behaviour. Bad weather, good luck, proper tools, or poor advice.,Attr

28、ibution Cues,We rely on external cues and make inferences from these cues when making attributions. Three implicit questions guide our decisions as to whether we should attribute some behaviour to dispositional or situational causes.,Attribution Cues (continued),1.Does the person engage in the behav

29、iour regularly and consistently? (Consistency cues). 2.Do most people engage in the behaviour, or is it unique to this person? (Consensus cues). 3.Does the person engage in the behaviour in many situations, or is it distinctive to one situation? (Distinctiveness cues).,Consistency Cues,Attribution c

30、ues that reflect how consistently a person engages in a behaviour over time. High consistency behaviour leads to dispositional attributions. When behaviour occurs inconsistently, we begin to consider situational attributions.,Consensus Cues,Attribution cues that reflect how a persons behaviour compa

31、res with that of others. Low consensus behaviour leads to dispositional attributions. The informational effects of low-consensus behaviour are magnified when the actor is expected to suffer negative consequences because of the deviance.,Distinctiveness Cues,Attribution cues that reflect the extent t

32、o which a person engages in some behaviour across a variety of situations. Low distinctiveness behaviour leads to a dispositional attribution. When a behaviour is highly distinctive, in that it occurs in only one situation, we are likely to assume that some aspect of the situation caused the behavio

33、ur.,Attribution in Action,Observers put information about consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness together to form attributions. Consider three employees who are absent from work.,Attribution in Action (continued),Roshani is absent a lot, her co-workers are seldom absent, and she was absent a lo

34、t in her previous job. Mika is absent a lot, her co-workers are also absent a lot, but she was almost never absent in her previous job. Sam is seldom absent, her co-workers are seldom absent, and she was seldom absent in her previous job.,Cue Combinations and Resulting Attributions,Biases in Attribu

35、tion,Although observers often operate in a rational, logical manner in forming attributions about behaviour, this does not mean that such attributions are always correct. Three biases in attribution: Fundamental attribution error Actor-observer effect Self-serving bias,Fundamental Attribution Error,

36、The tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations for behaviour at the expense of situational explanations. We often discount the strong effects that social cues can have on behaviour. We fail to realize that observed behaviour is distinctive to a particular situation.,Actor-Observer Effect,T

37、he propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actors behaviour differently. Actors are prone to attribute much of their own behaviour to situational factors while observers are more likely to invoke dispositional causes. Why are actors prone to attribute much of their own behaviou

38、r to situational causes?,Self-Serving Bias,The tendency to take credit for successful outcomes and to deny responsibility for failures. People will explain the very same behaviour differently on the basis of events that happened after the behaviour occurred. Self-serving bias can reflect intentional

39、 self-promotion or excuse making or it might reflect unique information on the part of the actor.,Person Perception and Workforce Diversity,Workforce diversity refers to differences among recruits and employees in characteristics, such as gender, race, age, religion, cultural background, physical ab

40、ility, or sexual orientation. The workforce is becoming more diverse. Many organizations have not successfully managed workforce diversity.,The Changing Workplace,The Canadian population and labour force is becoming increasingly multicultural and multiethinic. The number of visible minorities in Can

41、ada is expected to double by 2017. In less than a decade, 48 percent of the working-age population will be between the ages of 45 and 64.,The Changing Workplace (continued),Many organizations are seeking to recruit more representatively. Many employees are required to interact with people from subst

42、antially different national or corporate cultures. Increased emphasis on teamwork as a means of job design and quality enhancement.,Valuing Diversity,Some have argued that organizations should value diversity not just tolerate it. A critical motive is the basic fairness of valuing diversity.,Valuing

43、 Diversity (continued),Diversity and its proper management can yield strategic and competitive advantages: Improved problem solving and creativity Improved recruiting and marketing Improved competitiveness in global markets Organizations are adopting diversity as part of their corporate strategy.,Co

44、mpetitive Advantages to Valuing and Managing a Diverse Workforce,Cost Resource-Acquisition Marketing Creativity Problem-Solving System Flexibility,Stereotypes and Workforce Diversity,A major barrier to valuing diversity is the stereotype. The tendency to generalize about people in a certain social c

45、ategory and ignore variations among them. Common workplace stereotypes are based on gender, age, race, and ethnicity. Stereotypes can have negative effects on how individuals are treated in organizations.,Stereotype Threat,Members of a social group feel they might be judged or treated according to a

46、 stereotype and that their behaviour or performance will confirm the stereotype. The activation of a salient negative stereotype threat in a testing situation has been found to result in lower cognitive ability and math test performance scores of minorities and women.,Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes,R

47、acial and ethnic stereotypes are pervasive, persistent, frequently negative, and often contradictory. Whites have been found to advance further in the hiring process than blacks. Career tracking based on racial or ethnic stereotyping is common. Organizations are reflections of the environments of wh

48、ich they are a part.,Gender Stereotypes,One of the most problematic stereotypes for organizations is the gender stereotype. Women are severely underrepresented in managerial and administrative jobs. Women hold only 14.4 percent of corporate officer positions.,Gender Stereotypes (continued),Stereotyp

49、es of women do not correspond well with stereotypes of businesspeople or managers. What is the nature of gender stereotypes?,Gender Stereotypes (continued),Successful managers are perceived as having traits and attitudes that are generally ascribed to men. Successful managers are seen as more simila

50、r to men in qualities such as leadership ability, competitiveness, self-confidence, ambitiousness, and objectivity. Stereotypes of successful middle managers do not correspond to stereotypes of women.,Gender Stereotypes (continued),Gender stereotypes lead to biased human resource decisions. Women su

51、ffer from a stereotype that is detrimental to their hiring, development, promotion, and salaries.,Gender Stereotypes (continued),The detrimental effects of gender stereotypes are reduced or removed when decision makers have good information about the qualifications and performance of particular wome

52、n and an accurate picture of the job that they are applying for or seeking promotion into.,Gender Stereotypes (continued),Some Canadian organizations have made efforts to ensure that women are represented in senior positions. Women have made the most significant progress moving into senior managemen

53、t and executive positions in the financial services industry. Industries that tend to be stereotypically male have the lowest representation of women in senior positions.,Age Stereotypes,Knowing that a person falls into a certain age range or belongs to a particular age generation, we have a tendenc

54、y to make certain assumptions about the persons physical, psychological, and intellectual capabilities. What is the nature of work-related age stereotypes?,Age Stereotypes (continued),Older workers are seen as having less capacity for performance. They are viewed as less productive, creative, logica

55、l, and capable of performing under pressure, and as having less potential for development. They are perceived as more rigid and dogmatic, and less adaptable to new corporate cultures. They are perceived as more honest, dependable, and trustworthy.,Age Stereotypes (continued),These stereotypes are in

56、accurate. Age seldom limits the capacity for development until post-employment years. Research has found that age and job performance are unrelated.,Age Stereotypes (continued),Age stereotypes affect human resource decisions regarding hiring, promotion, and skills development. Older workers are ofte

57、n passed over for merit pay and promotions and pressured to take early retirement. Some organizations have implemented programs and practices to promote the hiring of older workers.,Managing Workforce Diversity,Diversity needs to be managed to have a positive impact on work behaviour and an organiza

58、tion. What can organizations do to achieve and manage a diverse workforce?,Managing Workforce Diversity (continued),Select enough minority members to get them beyond token status. Encourage teamwork that brings minority and majority members together. Ensure that those making career decisions about e

59、mployees have accurate information about them. Train people to be aware of stereotypes.,Managing Workforce Diversity at Boeing Canada Technology,Diversity days. Diversity training. Language and ASL training. Monthly awareness campaigns. Aboriginal recruitment. Job shadowing. Volunteer employment equ

60、ity and diversity team.,Diversity Training Programs,One of the most common approaches for managing diversity. They can cause disruption and bad feelings when all they do is get people to open up and generate stereotypes. Awareness training should be accompanied by skills training that is relevant to