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ParticleandSymmetry

Lecturer:Wei-ZhouJiang2021/6/271References[1]L.Ryder,Elementaryparticlesandsymmetries(粒子物理與對稱性,宋孝同等譯)[2]W.M.Gibson,B.R.Pollard,Symmetryprinciplesinelementaryparticlephysics,(基本粒子物理學(xué)中的對稱性原理,丁里譯)[3]李政道,場論與粒子物理,1979[4]黃克孫,夸克、輕子與規(guī)范場,1982[5]許咨宗,課件:粒子物理中的守恒定律(中科大);核與粒子物理導(dǎo)論,中國科技大學(xué)出版社[6]戴又善,粒子物理講義(浙大)[6]R.Casalbuoni,QuantumFieldTheory,(1997)[7]來自Wikipedia的資料[9]鄭恒陽,粒子物理中的對稱性和對稱性破缺(山大,PPT報告)[10]陸埮,羅遼復(fù),物質(zhì)探微從電子到夸克,(2005,科普讀物)[11]IanAitchison,SupersymmetryinParticlePhysics:AnElementaryIntroduction(2007,Cambridge)2021/6/272?Outline?§1.Introductiontofundamentalparticles§2.Classicandquantumsymmetryprinciples§3.Lorentzinvariance(covariance)§4.Parity(P)

,spaceinflection,angularmomentum§5.Chargeconjugatesymmetry(C),CPsymmetryanditsbreaking§6.Timeinversionsymmetry(T)、CPTtheorem§7.Isospin,gauge,chiralsymmetriesandtheirspontaneousbreakings?Belowarepossiblelectures:§夸克模型、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)模型、強(qiáng)子共振態(tài),介子衰變、G宇稱(?)§超對稱Ads/CFT(?)§Higgs粒子與重正化(?)§手征對稱性與標(biāo)量場(?)§超對稱2021/6/273粒子物理的基本內(nèi)容與量子力學(xué)和量子場論相關(guān)

微觀粒子(原子、分子)性質(zhì);薛定諤方程;定態(tài)及散射基本粒子遵循之對稱性基本粒子及其運動規(guī)律基本粒子及其相互作用

物質(zhì)世界的基本構(gòu)成(結(jié)構(gòu)與相互作用)、宇宙學(xué)等,beyondquantummechanics2021/6/274§1.基本粒子簡介

§1.1發(fā)展簡史

物質(zhì)的基本單元和基本結(jié)構(gòu)的思辨探索殷(前1600年)周(前1027)時期的古代五行說,金木水火土戰(zhàn)國墨子:“端”是無同也,莫能破古印度:風(fēng)火水土,四大皆空古希臘:恩培多克勒(約公元前490~430)柏拉圖(公元前427~347)水、氣、火、土四元素。宋朝:朱熹,

理氣說,

理在氣先古希臘:德謨克利特(前四世紀(jì)),原子近代:1807年道爾頓,提出原子論

1869年門捷列夫,元素周期律2021/6/275現(xiàn)代粒子物理與核物理的發(fā)展1895年,放射性:X射線(W.C.Rontgen倫琴)1896、1898年天然放射性(A.H.Becquerel貝克勒爾;M.Curie居里夫婦)1897年,電子(J.J.Tohmson湯姆生)1911年,Rutherford:α散射實驗原子核式結(jié)構(gòu);R.A.Millikan油滴實驗1926年,P.A.Dirac:相對論量子力學(xué),真空,反粒子1930年,正電子發(fā)現(xiàn):趙忠堯;1932年,Anderson(1936年,NobelPrize)1932年,中子的發(fā)現(xiàn):Chadwick1930年,中微子:泡利Pauli,費米Fermi(理論),王淦昌(實驗建議),萊茵斯(1955年,NobelPrize)1935年,介子:湯川秀樹H.Yukawa1950年代,強(qiáng)子共振態(tài),200多種(宇宙線、加速器)1954年,楊-Mills規(guī)范場,W,Z介子,膠子:弱、強(qiáng)作用1957年,李政道,楊振寧:NobelPrize,弱作用宇稱不守恒2021/6/2761964年,M.Gell-Mann強(qiáng)子結(jié)構(gòu)的夸克模型1967年,S.Wemberg,A.Salam,S.L.Glashow,弱電統(tǒng)一理論,W,Z波色子1983年,西歐核子中心(CERN)發(fā)現(xiàn)W,Z波色子1970年代,量子色動力學(xué)(QCD)亞夸克,前子(Preon),毛子(Maon,1977Glashow基于Onion-layerstratonmodel的提議)?公孫龍:一尺之棰,日取其半,萬世不竭物質(zhì)從哪里來?真空與物質(zhì),《心經(jīng)》,色不異空,空不異色,色即是空,空即是色。2021/6/277§1.2粒子分類輕子e,μ,τ;;及其反粒子強(qiáng)子a)重子: b)介子:規(guī)范波色子Higgs粒子?2021/6/278共振態(tài)右圖:KersonHuang,Quarks,Leptons&GaugeFields,p5(1992,WorldScientificPublishing),DenotedasHuang1992lateron.2021/6/279高能物理實驗宇宙線:其中包括約87%質(zhì)子,12%α粒子(氦核子),其余大部分是原子核、電子、γ射線以及超高能中微子也構(gòu)成一小部分宇宙射線。右圖來自Wikipedia。中國:云南落雪山3180米云室,在川3222米大型磁云室;西藏甘巴拉山5500米,高山乳膠室,羊八井4300米,國際宇宙線觀測站(中日、中意);高空熱氣球,衛(wèi)星(AMS,東南大學(xué))2021/6/2710地球?qū)嶒炇壹铀倨?932年,高壓加速器,質(zhì)子0.7MeV1939年,回旋加速器,質(zhì)子20MeV1946年,穩(wěn)相加速器(變電場),190MeV1953年,質(zhì)子同步加速器(變磁場),23GeV現(xiàn)有著名加速器,高真空,強(qiáng)流,超導(dǎo)強(qiáng)磁右圖:張闖,漫談對撞機(jī),《現(xiàn)代物理知識》2007年第二期2021/6/2711§1.3相互作用FromHuang19922021/6/2712四種相互作用2021/6/2713一些例子以交換虛粒子實現(xiàn)相互作用A)力程B)衰變壽命2021/6/2714Interactionsandscatteringcrosssections

Rutherfordscattering

,Smatrixingeneralcases:2021/6/2715AllreactionsincludingγhavetheelectromagneticinteractionReactionsincludingνcomefromtheweakinteractionWithe,μ,τincludedarereactionsoftheweakorelectricinteractions

Allmesonsdecayeventuallyintopairsoftheelectronandpositron,neutrino,andiphotons;Allbaryons,exceptprotons,willdecay.FromHuang1992Questions:

1。Howtoproducemoreparticles?2。Howtoclassifytheseparticles?

3。Howareparticlesarrangedintothestructureofbulkmatterthatisdeterminedbytheinteractions?4。Morefundamentalinteractions?newphysics?π0到雙光子的衰變?γ+gq+qbar?2021/6/2716§1.4NaturalunitSmallenergyscaleformicroscopicparticlesshorttimescaleintheprocessofinteractions.It'smoreconvenienttousethenaturalunit:2021/6/2717§1.5Particles,celestrialbodiesandcosmosBigbang,inflation,darkmatter,darkenergy溫度(K)Energy(eV)Time(s)Epoch物理過程1032102810-44Planck1028102410-36Grandunif.10-35,-33Inflation暴脹過程101310910-6Quark101110710-2Lepton10101061νdecoupling中微子脫耦5

1095

1055Photon電子對湮滅1091053分Proton輕核素生成3

1030.338萬年Atom微波背景輻射4億年Stars再電離Galaxy大尺度結(jié)構(gòu)形成2.73

10-4137億年P(guān)resent表格來自陸埮教授2021/6/2718Whataredarkmatterandenergy?DarkMatter23%DarkEnergy73%“NormalMatter”4%Aretheyrelatedtolarge-masscelestialbody?2021/6/27192021/6/2720FromBigBangtoBlackHoles10-10--100sProtonneutronAfter1BillionyearsNeutrsonStarProtonNeutronBlackhole(R~10km)TheenergyresourcesinnaturearefromthecombustionofPROTONS!2021/6/2721習(xí)題掌握粒子物理發(fā)展的主要事件。加速器在粒子物理發(fā)展中的作用是什么?簡述四種相互作用。說明相互作用與散射截面、壽命的關(guān)系?;玖W邮侨绾畏诸惖??舉例說明自然單位制的時空和物質(zhì)度量單位及與國際單位制的關(guān)系。2021/6/2722SymmetyConservationlawRotationalsymmetry

AngularmomentumBaryonnumberLeptonnumberIsospinSpatialtranslation

MomentumconservationTemporaltranslation

EnergyconservationGlobalsymmetry

ConservationlawChapter2:ClassicalandquantumsymmetryprincplesSymmetry:Invarianceofthephysicallawsunderthetransformationofinteriorandexteriordegreesoffreedom(indistinguishability)§2.1Symmetryandconservationlaws,Noethertheorem2021/6/2723U(1),Charge

ElectromagneticinteractionSU(2),WeakCharge

weakinteraction*SU(3),color(charge)

StronginteractionLocalsymmetry

Interaction

*SU(2)對稱性首先是楊-Mills規(guī)范場中引入以研究強(qiáng)相互作用的同位旋對稱性的,見C.N.YangandR.L.Mills,Phys.Rev.96,191(1954).2021/6/2724AboveisthecontinuoussymmetryConcretesymmetry:

Spacereflection(P)Timeinversion(T)Chargeconjugate(C)——particleandantiparticleExplicitbreakingofsymmetry,Breakingsofparityconservationandchargeconjugatesymmetryinweakinteraction,(弱作用的宇稱不守恒、電荷共軛對稱破壞等);Relatedtothespontaneoussymmetrybreaking?(與自發(fā)破缺的關(guān)系?)Spontaneousbreakingofsymmetry(causedbyvacuumasymmetry)——breakingsofgaugeandchiralsymmetries.Twomodes:GoldstoneTheorem——J.Goldstone,NuovoCimento,19,154(1961);Higgsmechanism。2021/6/2725§2.2Examplesofconservationlaws——BaryonnumberandleptonnumberInanyprocess,thebaryonandleptonnumbersshouldbeconserved.BecauseFermionsarerealparticles,thestabilityofmatterrequiresthatthecreationandannihilationbeinpairs.2021/6/27262021/6/2727§2.3

Symmetryinclassicalmechanics1。Invarianceofspatialtranslation,namely,anabsolutepositionisunmeasurable

Momentumconservation

1)Example:two-particlesystem

Interactionpotential:

displacement:a

?2021/6/27282)Generalcase:LagrangeequationinAnalyticalMechanics2021/6/27292。Energyconservation,namely,absolutetimeisunmeasurable?2021/6/2730§2.3

Symmetryinquantummechanics在量子力學(xué)中已有討論,如見曾謹(jǐn)言《量子力學(xué)》上冊Generallyspeaking,Conservedquantaaretheexpectationvalueofoperators,differentfromtheclassicalmechanics

FromSchroedingerequation,ithas2021/6/27311。Translationaltransformation

Infinitesimaltransformation2021/6/2732Finitetransformation

2021/6/27332。Temporaltranslation

3。Invarianceofrotation2021/6/27344.Invarianceofgaugetransformation

Here,wearelimitedtotheglobalsymmetrythatisindependentofspaceandtime.2021/6/2735習(xí)題1。在經(jīng)典情形證明時間平移不變性導(dǎo)致能量守恒;在量子情形下,無窮下變換和有限變換下分別證明時間平移不變性導(dǎo)致能量守恒。

2。如1題證明轉(zhuǎn)動不變性導(dǎo)致角動量守恒。2021/6/2736§3.Lorentzinvariance(covariance)LorentzGroupEquationofrelativisticquantummechanicsRequirementsforLagrangian2021/6/2737§3.1LorentzGroupConceptofthegroup:Theoperationsorthesetthathavecloseness.2021/6/2738LorentztransformationTheeventintervalisaLorentzscalar:2021/6/2739Lorentzgroup2021/6/2740Lorentzgroupalsoincludesthespace-timereflectionfortheinvarianceofs2.Ifnotincluded,itisdubbedLorentzboost——洛侖茲換速。IfthetranslationisaddedtotheLorentzrotation,thenitformsthePoincaregroup.2021/6/2741§3.2Simplerelativisticmechanics2021/6/2742LorentzScalar2021/6/2743§3.3RequirementsforLagrangianAllequationsofmotionarederivedfromtheprincipleofleastaction,i.e.,Euler-Lagrangeequaiton。LagrangianmustbetheLorentzscalar,sothatnotchangedwiththetransformationoftheinertialframe:FreefieldsandinteractionsIsthemasstheLorentzscalar?2021/6/27442021/6/2745§3.4MorecontentofcovarianceCPT(discusslateron)Generalisedcovariance:covariantderivative2021/6/2746習(xí)題1.2.3.2021/6/2747Aboutlearningmethod:tohavegoals蒼龍:粒子物理,Skydragon地龍:量子力學(xué),EarthdragonSelf-confidencetodigoutnewphysicsbeyondquantummechanics2021/6/2748元音老人《碧巖錄》講座昔五祖演會下有一僧請益五祖:‘如何是末后句?’祖云:‘你師兄會末后句,問他去?!畣枎熜郑m逢游山回,僧為打水洗腳次,進(jìn)問云:‘如何是末后句?’師兄以腳挑水灑其面斥云:‘什么末后句?!’僧哭訴祖,祖云:‘我向你道,他會末后句!’僧于言下大悟。陳獻(xiàn)章、王守仁2021/6/2749§4.Parity(P)、Spacereflectionsymmetry,angularmomentum§4.1Spacereflection(夫思妻)

枯眼望遙山隔水,

往來曾見幾心知。

壺空怕酌一杯酒,

筆下難成和韻詩。

途路阻人離別久,

訊音無雁寄回遲。

孤燈夜守長寥寂,

夫憶妻兮父憶兒。

(妻想夫)

兒憶父兮妻憶夫,

寂寥長守夜燈孤。

遲回寄雁無音訊,

久別離人阻路途。

詩韻和成難下筆,

酒杯一酌怕空壺。

知心幾見曾來往,

水隔山遙望眼枯。

夫妻相思

宋·李禺

(夫思妻)

枯眼望遙山隔水,

往來曾見幾心知。

壺空怕酌一杯酒,

筆下難成和韻詩。

途路阻人離別久,

訊音無雁寄回遲。

孤燈夜守長寥寂,

夫憶妻兮父憶兒。

2021/6/2750

DNAshowsthebreakingofmirrorimage.Chirality長瓣兜蘭paphiopedilum:Thehelixesatbothsideshavetheleft-rightsymmetry:therightisleft-handedhelixandtheleftright-handed.2021/6/2751DNA自然界的許多分子,手性分子占去了很大的比例。構(gòu)成蛋白質(zhì)的氨基酸都是L型氨基酸,多糖和核酸的單糖是R型糖。人們甚至發(fā)現(xiàn),1969年墜落在澳大利亞默奇森的隕石(aerolite)中的氨基酸(aminoacid)也主要是L型的。Chiralityofbiologicalmolecules2021/6/27522021/6/2753§4.2AngularmomentumandParity

θφxyzx'y'z'xyz→θφx'y'z'→π-θ,π+φSpatialwavefunction:

習(xí)題:2021/6/2754Anexample:ElectricdipoletransitionProbability2021/6/2755§4.3Identificationoftheintrinsicparityof(static)particlesSingleparticlewithgivenmomentumisnottheeigenstateofparity(?why)2021/6/27561。Identificationofintrinsicparityofπmesonπ-Deuteronreaction,thefinalstateproducestwoneutrons.ThisreactioncanbeaccompaniedbytheradiationofKX-rayfromthedeuteron-pionatom,π

-L=0KX-ray?i=L=02021/6/2757OdevityofangularmomentumfromtherelativemotionoftwoneutronsAllpossiblestatesoftwoidenticalneutrons0,1,2Onlyonestatemeetstheconservationofangularmomentumandtheantisymmetryofforfermionicsystem:3P1Initialstate:Possiblefinalstatesof(n,n)2021/6/2758π±,π0belongtothesameisospinmulpletandtheyshouldhavethesameparity:πmeson:pseudoscalarmeson2021/6/27592。IdentificationofphotonintrinsicparityPRy(π)xyzzyxyzx2021/6/2760Spin&parityquantumnumbersofparticles2021/6/2761§4.3ParityviolationintheweakinteractionWeshouldknowthattheparityconservationremainsinthestrongandelectromagneticinteractions.(1)θ-τpuzzle2021/6/2762AngularmomentumconservationofidentificationofparityJP0-0-0-0-0-0-0-LL++L-LL++L-π+π+π-Lπ+π0Jf=L+++L-=0,L++=L-=LJf=L=0ητ(f)=ηP3(π)(-1)2L=-1ηθ(f)=ηP2(π)(-1)L=+1A.M.ParityDalitzdiagramanalysis2021/6/2763Lee-Yang'swork

Iftheweakinteractionconservesparity,θ

–τmustbetwokindsofparticleshavingdifferentparity.Buttheysharethesamespin,mass,yieldandlifetime.So,θ

–τshouldbelikethesameparticle,whiletheparityisviolatedthen.Thisistheθ

–τpuzzle.Afterreviewingtheexperimentaldataofparticlesandnuclidesbefore1956,LeeandYangfoundthattheparityisconservedinthestrongandelectromagneticinteraction,whileintheprocessoftheweakinteraction,likethedecayoftheparticles,β-decayofnuclides,nodatacanelaboratethattheparityisconserved.

θ

–τisthusthefinal-stateparticlesofsomeparticlewhichisproducedthroughthestronginteraction,anddeceyintodifferentfinalstatesviatheweakinteractionthatviolatestheparity.τ-θ就是粒子K+2021/6/2764ExperimentalverificationTheoreticprobe2021/6/2765MeasurementoflongitudinalpolarizationofβparticleThespinorientationoffinal-stateelectronandanti-neutrinoshouldbealongtheorientationofpolarization:Longitudinalpolarizationofeisdefinedas:I+I-Forpositronα=+1,ofright-handpriority;forelectronα=-1,ofleft-handpriority.e-e+v/cP*****????????-0.50.53H60Co32P2021/6/2766(2)Neutrinohelicityintheweakinteraction1958年M.Goldhaber等人利用核素的K電子俘獲特殊的衰變方式,巧妙地從實驗證明了中微子的螺旋度。衰變級聯(lián)過程為ν&Sm*haveoppositemomentumandangularmomentum(AM)forAMconservation,hofνthusconformswiththatofSm*,whilethelatterisdeterminedbythehelicityofγ.實驗上測得左旋光子。2021/6/2767(3)Λproduction&decay:parityconservationornot?強(qiáng)產(chǎn)生的Λ-粒子是橫向極化的。橫向極化態(tài)的空間反射具有不變性產(chǎn)生平面法線z:(4)Forparityconservation,peudoscalarmustbezero2021/6/2768習(xí)題2021/6/2769§5.Chargeconjugation(C)、CPsymmetryanditsbreaking

5.1ChargeconjugatesymmetrytheoperatorC:transformationbetweentheparticleandantiparticle,changesallintrinsicquanta,e.g.,ChargeQ,baryonno.B,leptonno.L,strangeno.S,hyperchargeG,the3rdcomponentofisospinI3.

Cdoesnotchangethespin;自旋雖然是內(nèi)稟自由度,但與時空性質(zhì)相關(guān).內(nèi)部自由度對稱性給出additivequantumnumbers.2021/6/2770Chargeparityofphotons:chargeparityofΠ02021/6/2771GeneralizedPauliprinciple2021/6/2772§5.3VerificationofCconjugatesymmetry1.C-parityconservationinelectromagneticinteraction:ηC(-1)L+S(-1)nOddevityofphotonnumberisdecidedbythe(L+S)ofpositioniumIntheelectromagneticprocess,theC-parityconservationisverifieduptoaquitehighprecision.2021/6/2773Comparetwomutuallyconjugateprocess:Mesonandanti-mesoninthef.s.featureaperfectsymmetry.Especiallyfortheexclusiveprocessπ+(π-),C-paritysymmetrygivessymmetricangulardistributionofcrosssection:andπ0

producedbyP-Pbarannhilationissymmetricaboutθ=90。。Strongdecayofvectormeson:JPC1--0-0-0-+

L11ηC-1-1+1ηP-1-1+12.C-parityconservationinstronginteractionprocess2021/6/27743.C-paritybreakingintheweakinteractionprocess,conservationofthejointCPtransformtionP:l.h.r.h.C:particle-antiparticle2021/6/2775作業(yè):分析下列反應(yīng)的荷稱是否守恒JPC1--0-0-0-+

L112021/6/2776§5.4CPsymmetrybreakingandneutralKaondecay1.BackgroundHowever,thedifferencecomesupfortheneutralKdecay.π-純K02021/6/2777K0K0π+π-S(Y)+10-1Strangenessisnotaconservednumberoftheweakinteraction,whileK0&K0barareeigenstatesofthestronginteraction,insteadoftheweakinteraction,(見M.Gell-MannandA.Pais的工作(Phys.Rev.97,1387,1955.))Theweakinteractioneigenstatesshouldcomefromthemixingofthem:2021/6/2778Theoscillationobservation:inpureK0beamthereisthereactionarisingfromK0barπ-+pπ-純K0p純K0K2∞S=-12021/6/27793.CPbreakingIn1964,Christenson,Cronin,Fitch,TurlayfoundintheneutralKaondecaysthesymmetrybreakingofthejointCPoperation(Phys.Rev.Lett.,13,138(1964).)ThesamemesondecaysintostateswithoppositeCP——CPbreaking!Solution:2021/6/2780(1)MixingleadstoCPbreakingPhenomenologictheorymayuse3parametersrelatedtotheamplitudeandwidthtodescribetodescribetheCPbreakingofthedecayofthelong-livedKL如果KL中K0-K0Bar等幅混合,δ=02021/6/2781K1&K2havethedefiniteCPoddevity:OddandevenCPmixingstates:KS,KLTheunequalmixingofthatleadstotheCPbreakingistheso-calledsuperweaktheoryforCPbreakingp=q,equalmixing,CPsymmetric,K0K0π+π-GwGwGswK0K02021/6/2782(2)DirectCPbreaking直接比較K0反K0到達(dá)同位旋為I的介子末態(tài)的衰變振幅的差異thefinalstatephaseshift。FortheCPinvariance,mustbereal.TheobservableofCPbreaking,mixingparametersanddecayamplitudemeetfollowingrelations2021/6/2783Thedataindicate:~1Extractionfromexperiments:IntheneutralKdecay,directCPbreakingisunimportant.Ifhasatinyimaginarypart2021/6/2784?of2008NobelPrizeCP&3rdgenerationofquarks2021/6/27853.MicroscopicmodelforCPbreaking—CKMmodelCabibbo–Kobayashi–MaskawaIn1963,CabibbointroducedtheCabibboangletokeeptheuniversalityofthequarkmodelintheweakinteraction,AfterCharmquarkfound,thestrengthoftheflavorchangingdecaycanbeexpressedbythe2X2matrix1973年KM發(fā)現(xiàn)2X2的四夸克模型不能解釋CP破缺,把Cabibbo矩陣一般化為3X3的如下形式:三代夸克。帶撇的是弱作用的本征態(tài),右邊不帶撇的是質(zhì)量本征態(tài),弱作用里它們不一樣FromWikipedia2021/6/2786ButinKMtheory,CPbreakingisnotenoughtointerpretthematter-antimatterasymmetry.MustlookfornewphysicsbeyondthestandardmodelWhyintheUniverse,stillnoanti-matterfound?——CPsymmetrybreaking,e.g.WhoisthefutureHopefuloftheNobelPrize?2021/6/2787§6.Timereversalsymmetry(T)、CPTtheorem

Timereversal:

Themacroscopictimedirectioncanbedefinedbytheirreversibleprocess,liketheantropyevolution,Timereversalis,infact,thereversalofthemotion.Timereversalinvarianceisjusttheinvarianceofthemotion.2021/6/2788§6.1TimereversalinClassicalmechanics注意:FT的自變量為-t.角動量L與動量p一致.2021/6/2789Timereversal

Motionreversal見W.M.吉布森,B.R.波拉德,(丁里譯)基本粒子物理學(xué)中的對稱性原理,p197.2021/6/2790§6.2TimereversalinquantummechanicsExpectationvalueaftertimereversal:2021/6/2791T——anti-unitaryoperator:可令T=UK,K為取復(fù)共軛且t→-t,TtransformationforoperatorA:2021/6/2792§6.3DetailedbalanceprincipleThisindicatesthatforthemotionreversal,probabilityisinvariant:Timereversalinvariance.2021/6/27932.Theprincipleofdetailedbalance

Forthespace-timereflectionsymmetry,thetransitionmatrixelementsfortheforwardandbackwardprocessesshouldbeequal.

——detailedbalanceprinciple.2021/6/27943.ExamplesCisphasespacefactor,cmthecenterofmass.Oneshouldsumallthefinalstatesandaverageovertheinitialstate.1950’s,Marshak,Cheston,Cartwright,Durbin等人用來確定π介子的自旋.2021/6/27954.Electricdiploe(ED)ofneutronsGivenadefiniteparityfortheparticlethenitsexpectationvaluemustbezero,inthattheelectricdipolehastheoddparity.Foraspin?particle,theEDshouldalsobestrictlyzeroduetotheTsymmetry.Note:ParityviolationcanalsoleadstononzeroED,soweneedconsider(1)Weakinteractionthatviolatestheparity,withmagnitudeGFMp2(2)EMinteractionthatviolatesTsymmetrywiththemagnitudeg=o/e,theratioofT-oddandT-evenmatrixelement.對于弱作用,強(qiáng)子的非輕子衰變(K0等)破壞T對稱性。CPT聯(lián)合變換的不變性?2021/6/2796§6.4CPT定理所有相互作用過程,在CP和T變換的聯(lián)合作用下具有不變性,不管它們的順序如何放置。這是相對論協(xié)變場論的內(nèi)在性質(zhì),比如正反粒子的對稱性蘊含在Dirac方程中。

但CPT聯(lián)合變換,沒有守恒量此外,可以證明:正反粒子具有相同的總壽命、電荷、旋磁比(gyromagneticratio)g.2021/6/27972021/6/2798§7.同位旋(Isospin)、規(guī)范對稱性(gaugesymmetry)、手征對稱性(chiralsymmetry),相互作用(interaction)§7.1同位旋1)質(zhì)子數(shù)和中子數(shù)互易的鏡像核(mirrornuclei)具有幾乎相同的結(jié)合(bindingenergy)能(其結(jié)合能差僅為庫侖能差)、相似的能級(energylevel)分布和相同的自旋.2)在軌角量子數(shù)l和自旋量子數(shù)s分別相同時,p—p散射與n—p散射的相角相同、散射長度(scatteringlength)相近、有效力程(forcerange)相同;在l=0,s=0的1s態(tài),相互作用能都近似為11.9MeV.3)入射核子能量相等時,在所有散射角下,p-p和n-n彈性散射的微分截面和總截面分別相等.

1932年,海森伯指出:在原子核內(nèi),狀態(tài)相同的質(zhì)子和質(zhì)子、質(zhì)子和中子、中子和中子之間的核力相等,與其是否帶電無關(guān);1932年,Wigner采用了類似于自旋的表述,1937年取名為同位旋(Isotopicspin,Isobaricspin.今天為Isospin).這在1937年為實驗證實,1946—1955年間為更精確的實驗證實.Vpp=Vnn和Vpp=Vnn=Vnp的準(zhǔn)確性分別大于99%和98%.2021/6/27992021/6/27100NucleonIsospin2021/6/27101π介子同位旋2021/6/27102超荷與奇異性粒子電荷與同位旋第三分量2021/6/27103Quantitiesofmesonsandbaryons2021/6/27104SU(2)對稱性與生成元,SymmetryandgeneratorIsospinconservation:[I,H]=0.2021/6/27105§7.2

gaugesymmetryAtypicalinstanceforgaugetransformationInvarianceofMaxwellequationsEquationshavegaugesymmetryGlobalgaugesymmetry:因此,拉氏量£0在局域規(guī)范變換下不是不變的.電荷守恒要求拉氏量電中性2021/6/27106這里,e可看作U(1)群的生成元,電磁場A即為遵循U(1)規(guī)范變換的規(guī)范場。2021/6/27107Yang-Mills場2021/6/27108規(guī)范不變:——標(biāo)準(zhǔn)模型(弱電統(tǒng)一、QCD)的基礎(chǔ).2021/6/27109§7.3Chiralsymmetry手征對稱性2021/6/27110Noethertheorem:給定系統(tǒng)的Lagrangian,有對于內(nèi)部對稱性,2021/6/271112021/6/271122021/6/27113§7.4對稱性自發(fā)破缺(spontaneoussymmetrybreaking)物理真空(vacuum)——能量最低態(tài)(lowest-energystate)模型真空(modelingvacuum,破缺的真空對稱性自發(fā)破缺通常是指在對稱操作下系統(tǒng)能量最低態(tài)不是不變的。例子:Photonmassinsuperconductor

Massofgaugebosonsintheunifiedweak-electromagnetictheory宇宙大暴漲(inflation)的標(biāo)量場真空破缺,

Spontaneousbreakingofchiralmodel2021/6/27114FromAbers&Lee,Phys.Rept.9(1973)1-1412021/6/27115破缺生成元n2個矩陣元,n(n-1)/2個獨立生成元2021/6/27116TwomodesforspontaneousbreakingGoldstonemodeForglobalsymmetry,eachbroken生成元leadstoamasslessscalarparticle(Goldstoneparticle),likephononincrystals.參數(shù)化:2021/6/271172. HiggsmodeForlocalgaugesymmetry,gaugefieldsacquiremasses:Isphotonmassive?利用Euler-Lagrange方程,得到如超導(dǎo)中的光子獲得了質(zhì)量.2021/6/27118NobelPrize2008"forthediscoveryofthemechanismofspontaneousbrokensymmetryinsubatomicphysics"

YoichiroNambu

1/2oftheprizeEnricoFermiInstitute,UniversityofChicago

Chicago,IL,USA

其他重要貢獻(xiàn)的物理學(xué)家J.GoldstoneHiggsWeinberg,Salam,Glashow2021/6/27119粒子物理諾貝爾獎(不完全列表)2008Symmetry&Symmetrybreakinginparticlephysics:Nambu,Kobayashi,Maskawa2004AsymptoticfreedominQCD:Gross,Politzer&Wilczek2002Neutrinosdetection:Davis&Koshiba1999Electroweakinteractions:Hooft&Veltman1995tau&neutrino:Perl&Reines1992Multiwireproportionalchamber:Charpak1990Quarkmodel:Friedman,Kendall&Taylor1988Muonneutrino:Lederman,Schwartz&Steinberger1984W±&Z0:Rubbia&vanderMeer1980CPviolation:Gronin&Fitch1979Weak&electromagneticunification:Glashow,Salam&Weinberg1975Charmquark:Richter&Ting1969Quarkmodel:Gell-Mann…1957P-violation:Lee&Yang…更多獲獎信息:/2021/6/27120

§8.Quarkstructuresofhadrons來自呂準(zhǔn)和魯定輝教授2021/6/27121

Whatbindsthenucleus?2021/6/271221934年,湯川秀樹借鑒量子電動力學(xué),預(yù)言存在著一種新的粒子——介子(meson),質(zhì)量約為電子質(zhì)量200倍,在核子間傳遞強(qiáng)相互作用(strongforce)。

Whatbindsthenucleus?2021/6/27123混沌時代——Theparticlezoo大量的新粒子在加速器上涌現(xiàn)出來重子:介子:共振態(tài):當(dāng)粒子壽命小于10-10s~10-12s時,只能通過其衰變產(chǎn)物的反應(yīng)截面來觀測。在研究粒子的散射和反應(yīng)過程中,當(dāng)入射粒子能量取某一確定值時,散射或反應(yīng)的截面突然變大,截面隨能量的變化曲線和力學(xué)中的共振曲線完全類似,產(chǎn)生的“中間態(tài)”粒子因而被稱為共振態(tài)(resonance)。2021/6/27124Youngman,ifIcouldrememberthenamesoftheseparticles,Iwouldhavebeenabotanist.

Ihavehearditsaidthat“thefinderofanewelementaryparticleusedtoberewardedbyaNobelPrize,butsuchadiscoverynowoughttobepunishedbya$10,000fine”.[摘自Lamb諾貝爾演講辭].

2021/6/27125坂田SakataShyoichi模型1955年,日本理論物理學(xué)家坂田昌一提出了一種模型,認(rèn)為“基礎(chǔ)粒子”只是質(zhì)子、中子和超子,其余的強(qiáng)子則是“復(fù)合粒子”,都可以由“基礎(chǔ)粒子”及它們的反粒子復(fù)合出來。該模型還認(rèn)為,介子由一個基礎(chǔ)粒子和一個反粒子構(gòu)成,重子由兩個基礎(chǔ)粒子和一個反粒子構(gòu)成。所謂構(gòu)成一個粒子就是構(gòu)成表征這個粒子的全部量子數(shù)引起了毛的重視,1964年毛接見了他2021/6/27126

SomeordertothechaosIn1961Gell-MannandNe'emanintroduces“TheEightfoldWay”toorganizethehadrons.MesonoctectBaryonoctect2021/6/27127Baryondecuplet——PredictstheW-(S=-3).In1961,“tip”ofthedecupletnotyetfound.M.Gell-Mann’sprediction:m=1672MeV,plustherightproductionmechanismandalonglifetime.2021/6/271281964年,實驗上發(fā)現(xiàn)W-mexp=1685MeV2021/6/27129Thequarkmodel(夸克模型)In1964Gell-Mann(Nobelprize1969)andZweigintroducequark(ace)toexplainsuccessof“TheEightfoldWay”.dusuds___quarksantiquarksQu=2/3,Qd=Qs=-1/3Su=Sd=0,Ss=-1Mesonsareqqpairs;baryonsareqqqtriplets._Arequarksreal,oramathematicalmnemonic?Threeflavors2021/6/27130介子SU(3)味對稱性2021/6/271318重態(tài)單態(tài)以下7頁從魯定輝教授講義2021/6/27132贗標(biāo)介子(pseudoscalarmeson)和矢量介子(vectormeson)Compoundparticleofquarksandantiquarks,differentmesonicstatesdeterminedbytheirorbitalmotion,radialmotion,andspin.

空間宇稱,電荷共軛宇稱(如果是純中性的系統(tǒng))和G宇稱:贗標(biāo)介子

介子的基態(tài),當(dāng)組成夸克反夸克的(用符號表示)時對應(yīng)一組的介子,稱為贗標(biāo)介子。

2021/6/271332021/6/27134矢量介子當(dāng)組成夸克和反夸克的,對應(yīng)著另一組介子,稱為矢量介子。

2021/6/27135MixtureofSinglet&8thcomponentofoctet上述兩表中2021/6/27136將在表示的質(zhì)量矩陣對角化,可以推出混合角:分別為實際觀察到的Φ介子和ω介子的質(zhì)量。M8可以由Gell-Mann-Okubo公式(page37)推出,解得用和的波函數(shù)代入,得到Φ和ω的夸克組成:

2021/6/271372021/6/27138重子FlavorSU(3)symmetryDecupletOctet2021/6/27139味SU(3)多重態(tài)中的強(qiáng)子(重子或者介子),質(zhì)量很不相同,這只能用味SU(3)的對稱性的破缺來說明,這種破缺仍然保持了同位旋的SU(2)以及超荷U(1)的對稱性,同樣同位旋(不同分量),同一超荷的一組粒子,其質(zhì)量基本相同。對稱性的破缺使得多重態(tài)成員的質(zhì)量隨著超荷而變化,隨著粒子的總同位旋而變化。

Gell-Mann-Okubo(蓋爾曼——大久堡)massformula:

重子:

介子:

2021/6/27140SU(4)multiplets:16-plet2021/6/27141

2.SU(4)

multiplets:20-plet帶撇的表示組成的味道波函數(shù)對味的交換是部分對稱部分反對稱(a),不帶撇的表示對味道交換是完全對稱的(b)注意a中間c=1的6個粒子態(tài)2021/6/27142NameofBaryons

Symbol:Usingisospin:Ifconstituentquarksareu,dquarks)I=1/2NI=3/2ΔIfconstituentquarksaretwou&dquarkswithanotheroneofs,c,bt,forinstance,I=0ΛI(xiàn)=1Σ含c,b,t的要在右下角標(biāo)出2021/6/27143

3.

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