英文翻譯-松江區(qū)人口結構變遷與公共教育資源均衡配置研究

EquityandQualityinEducationSupportingDisadvantagedStudentsandSchoolsFOREWORDGlobalizationoftheeconomy,increasinglydiverseandinterconnectedpopulations,andrapidtechnologicalchangeareposingnewanddemandingchallengestoindividualsandsocietiesalike.Schoolsystemsarerethinkingtheknowledgeandskillsstudentswillneedforsuccessandtheeducationalstrategiesandsystemsrequiredforallchildrentoachievethem.InbothAsiaandNorthAmerica,urbanschoolsystemsareatthelocusofchangeinpolicyandpractice–atoncethesitesofthemostcriticalchallengesineducationandtheenginesofinnovationneededtoaddressthem.Therefore,AsiaSocietyorganizedtheGlobalCitiesEducationNetwork,anetworkofurbanschoolsystemsinNorthAmericaandAsiatofocusonchallengesandopportunitiesforimprovementcommontothem,andtovirtuallyallcityeducationsystems.Acriticalelementofhigh-performingschoolsystemsisthattheynotonlybenchmarkthepracticesofothercountries,buttheysystematicallyadaptandimplementthesepracticeswithintheirownculturalandpoliticalcontexts.TheGlobalCitiesEducationNetworkisintendedasamechanismforeducatorsanddecision-makersinAsiaandNorthAmericatocollaborativelydream,design,anddeliverinternationallyinformedsolutionstocommonchallengeswithwhicheducationsystemsarecurrentlygrappling.TheNetworkengagesincyclesofin-depthinquiry,planning,andactiontoaddressspecifictopicsrelatedtothethemesoftransforminglearningandachievingequity.Eachcycleinvolvesknowledgesharingandproblemsolving,includingatGlobalCitiesEducationNetworkSymposiaandtheproductionofresearchandknowledgeproductssuchascasestudies,backgroundpapers,andmeetingreports.Theoverarchinggoalistodeveloppracticalwisdomfromtheresearchandexperienceoftheworld’sleadingexpertswhichreflectsprovenorpromisingeffortsinNetworkcities,thatcanbeusedtoenhancetheeffectivenessofNetworkandcityschoolsystemsworld-wide.ThisreportpresentsthekeyrecommendationsoftheOECDpublicationEquityandQualityinEducation:SupportingDisadvantagedStudentsandSchools(2012a),whichmapsoutpolicyleversthatcanhelpbuildhighqualityandequitableeducationsystems,withaparticularfocusonNorthAmericanandAsian-Pacificcountries.IthasbeenpreparedbytheOECDEducationDirectoratewithsupportfromtheAsiaSocietyasaBackgroundReportforthefirstAsiaSocietyGlobalCitiesNetworkSymposium,HongKong,May10-12,2012.AsiaSocietyisgratefulforOECD’sleadershipininternationalbenchmarkingandforourongoingpartnership.WewouldliketothankthesponsorsoftheGlobalCitiesEducationNetworkincluding:JPMorganChaseFoundation,MetLifeFoundation,CarnegieCorporation,PearsonFoundation,andHewlettFoundation.WehopethatthisseriesofreportsprovidesknowledgeandexperienceusefultocitiesinAsia,NorthAmerica,andelsewhereeagertocreatetheconditionsthatwillpromotesuccessforallstudentsintoday’sinterconnectedworld.1.EQUITYINEDUCATION:AKEYCHALLENGEThehighestperformingeducationsystemsarethosethatcombinequalitywithequity.Equityineducationmeansthatpersonalorsocialcircumstancessuchasgender,ethnicoriginorfamilybackground,arenotobstaclestoachievingeducationalpotential(definitionoffairness)andthatallindividualsreachatleastabasicminimumlevelofskills(definitionofinclusion).Intheseeducationsystems,thevastmajorityofstudentshavetheopportunitytoattainhighlevelskills,regardlessoftheirownpersonalandsocio-economiccircumstances.WithintheAsia-Pacificregion,forexample,Korea,Shanghai-ChinaandJapanareexamplesofAsianeducationsystemsthathaveclimbedtheladdertothetopinbothqualityandequityindicators.InNorthAmerica,Canadaisamongsuchcountriesaswell.TheUnitedStatesisabovetheOECDmeaninreadingperformancebutbelowthemeanwithregardtoequity.Yet,eveninhighperformingsystemsasignificantnumberofstudentsfailtoobtainaminimumlevelofeducation,jeopardizingtheirownfutureandtheprogressoftheirsociety.Thedegreeofinclusionofaneducationsystemcanbemeasuredbythepercentageoflowperformersandindividualswhodonotattainuppersecondaryeducation(OECD,2012a).InPISA2009,19%of15-year-oldstudentsscoredbelowLevel2inreadingacrossOECDcountries,whichsignalsthatalmostoneoutoffiveyoungstersacrossOECDcountrieslacksbasicliteracyskills,andinsomecountriesthisproportionevenexceeded25%(SeeFigure1.3).Itisverylikelythatthoselackingbasicskillsatthisagewilleitherdropoutfromtheeducationsystemandnotfinishuppersecondaryschool,enteringtheworkforcewithlowskillsandunprepared,orwillcontinuestudyingbutstrugglingmorethantheirpeersandneedingadditional(andmoreexpensive)support.Indeed,thepercentageof25-34years-oldsthathavenotattaineduppersecondaryeducationreachesalmost20%ofyoungpeopleacrossOECDcountries(SeeFigure1.2),althoughitvariesmarkedly,from3%inKoreato62%inTurkey(OECD,2011a).Students’backgroundhasasignificantimpactontheiracademicachievementinmanycountries,andoften,lowsocio-economicbackgroundandlowperformanceconvergeinspecificpopulationgroups.Theincreasedlikelihoodofdisadvantagedstudentstoperformbelowlevel2canbeinterpretedasanindicatoroffairnessofaneducationsystem(OECD,2012a).Forexample,inKorea,thefewstudentsthatdonotachievebasicskillsareoftendisadvantagedstudents.Inthiscountry,studentsfromlowsocio-economicstatusarealmost3.5timesmorelikelytobelowperformersthantheirpeerswithahighstatus(SeeFigure1.3).Reducingschoolfailurepaysoffforbothsocietyandindividualandcontributestoeconomicgrowthandsocialdevelopment.Theeconomicandsocialcostsofschoolfailureanddropoutarehigh,whereasinvestingearlyineducation(Heckman,2011)andupuntiluppersecondaryeducationcompletionisefficient.Individualswithatleastuppersecondaryeducationhavebetteremploymentandhealthierlifestyleprospects,resultingingreatercontributionstopublicinvestmentthroughhighertaxes.Moreeducatedpeoplecontributetosustainableeconomies,andarelessdependentonpublicaidandlessvulnerabletoeconomicdownturnswhichinturncontributetomoreequitablesocieties(OECD,2011b). EducationisacentralelementofOECDcountries’growthstrategies.Tobeeffectiveinthelongrun,improvementsineducationneedtoenableallstudentstohaveaccesstoqualityeducationearly,tostayinthesystemuntilatleasttheendofuppersecondaryeducation,andtoobtaintheskillsandknowledgetheywillneedforeffectivesocialandlabourmarketintegration.This can bedonewithtwoparallelstrategies:Bydesigningeducationsystemsthatareconducivetoequity:Morespecifically,somesystemicpractices,suchasearlytracking,repetition,certainschoolchoiceschemesorlowqualityvocationaleducationandtrainingtendtoamplifysocialandeconomicdisadvantagesandareconducivetoschoolfailure.Section2reviewssystemlevelpracticesthathinderequityandprovidesfiverecommendationstopreventfailureandpromotethecompletionofuppersecondaryeducation.Thiscanhelpreinforceequityacrossthesystemandbenefitdisadvantagedstudentswithouthinderingotherstudents’progress.Byfocusingonandsupportingdisadvantagedschools:Schoolswithhigherproportionsofdisadvantagedstudentsareatgreaterriskofproblemsthatcanresultinunderperformance,affectingeducationsystemsasawhole.Lowperformingdisadvantagedschoolsoftenlacktheinternalcapacityorsupporttoimprove,asschoolleadersandteachersandtheenvironmentsofschools,classroomsandneighbourhoodsfrequentlyfailtoofferaqualitylearningexperienceforthemostdisadvantaged.Section3proposesfivepolicyrecommendationsthathaveshowntobeeffectiveinsupportingtheimprovementoflowperformingdisadvantagedschools.Whiletheseapplytoallschools,theyareparticularlyrelevantforlowperformingdisadvantagedschools,wheretheymaybehardertoachievebutcandeliverimprovements.Addressingthesechallengesisadifficultendeavourinanycountry.Improvementsacrossanentireeducationsystemcancomeonlywithstrongandconsistentpoliticalsupportandleadershipsustainedovertime.Italsorequirespolicydesignandimplementationthatisalignedtogovernancestructures.Inthisregard,settinghighachievementtargetsorstandardsisimportanttoraisethebarandsignalequitypriorities(Section4).2.TACKLINGSYSTEMLEVELPOLICIESTHATHINDEREQUITYINEDUCATIONEducationsystemsandthepathwaysthroughthemneedtobedesignedinawaythatbothenhancesequityandraisesstudents’success.Yet,somesystemlevelpolicies,suchasgraderepetitionorearlytracking,tendtoamplifysocio-economicdisparitiesandareconducivetodisengagementanddropout,whereasotherpoliciesseemtomitigatethem(CausaandChapuis,2009).Thissectionpresentsanddevelopsfivespecificsystemlevelpolicyleversthatcanreduceinequitiesineducationandcontributetoimproveoverallperformance.2.1.EliminategraderepetitionChallenge:graderepetitionisacommonpracticeinmanyOECDcountriesGraderepetitionoccurswhenstudents,afteraformalorinformalassessment,areheldbackinthesamegradeforanadditionalyear,ratherthanbeingpromotedtothenextstagealongwiththeirpeers.GraderepetitionispractisedinmanyOECDcountries:13%of15-year-oldsarereportedtohaverepeatedatleastoneyeareitherinprimaryorsecondaryschool(Figure2.2).ThisproportionisparticularlyhighinthepartnereconomyMacao-China,whereitaffectsover40%ofstudents.Schoolsystemsthatextensivelyuserepetitionareassociatedwithlowlevelsofeducationalperformance(OECD,2010b),whilestrategiestosupporteachindividualprevailincountrieswithhigherperformancelevels.Evidence:highandlastingcosts,whilebenefitsareslightandshort-livedThecostsofgraderepetitionarelargeforbothindividualsandsociety.First,thedirectcostsforschoolsystemsareveryhigh,astheseincludeprovidinganadditionalyearofeducationanddelayingentrytothelabourmarketbyayear.Second,itincreasesthelikelihoodofearningnoqualificationoronlyalowersecondaryone,whiletheacademicbenefitsofgraderetentionareslightandshort-livedastheseaccruefromgoingoverthesamecurriculaasecondtime(JacobandLefgren,2009).Third,graderetentionwidensinequitiesbecausestudentswithlowsocio-economicbackgrounds,poorlyeducatedparentsorimmigrantbackgrounds,andboys,aresignificantlymorelikelytorepeatthanothers(OECD,2011d).Inmanycountries,schoolshavefewincentivestotakeintoaccountthehighcostsgraderepetitionbearsonthesystem.Ononehand,boththeadditionalandopportunitycostsdonotdecreasethefundingthatindividualschoolsreceive(Field,KuczeraandPont,2007),whilealternativepracticesthatcanreducetheuseofrepetitionveryoftenhavedirectcostsforschools.Ontheotherhand,teacherswidelysupportthepracticeastheyobservetheimmediategainsbutnotthelong-termnegativeeffects(Jimerson,AndersonandWhipple,2002),andmovingweakerstudentstothefollowingyearwouldrequirethemtoteachinmorechallengingmixed-abilityenvironments,forwhichtheymaynotbepreparedorsupported.Preventivemeasures:ensurecontinuousassessmentandsupportstrategies.Themostsuccessfulalternativesarefocusedonpreventiontomakerepetitionunnecessary,providingtheneededsupporttothosefallingbehindbeforetheendoftheschoolyearandputtingthembackontrackontime,beforethelearninggapswiden,asdoneinFinlandandJapan(SeeBox2.1).Continuousassessmentofstudents’needscanfacilitatethedesignandimplementationoftailoredsupportprogrammesasearlyaspossible.Theseincludeimprovingteachers’skillstoteachinclassroomswithmorediverseattainmentlevels,extendinglearningopportunitiesaswellasdiversifyingthestrategiestosupportlearning,andstrengtheningstudents’meta-cognitiveskills.Promotionwithsupport.Repetitionratescanbereducedbyrestrictingthecriteriathatdeterminewhetherastudentistobeheldbackandbyestablishingfurtheropportunitiestomoveforward.However,promotionshouldbecombinedwithastructuredandengagingplanofsupporttocorrecteducationaldeficitsandmeettheeducationalstandards.Also,repetitioncanbelimitedtothesubjectsormodulesfailedinsteadofyear-repetition.Forexample,inCanada,NewZealandandtheUnitedStates,retentionisusuallyrestrictedtothespecificclassesthatthestudentfailed.Astudentcanbe,forinstance,promotedinamathclassbutretainedinalanguageclass.Reversingthecultureofgraderepetitioninschools.Educationalauthoritiesshouldraiseteacherawarenessofitsconsequences,offersupportandresources,andalsoincludeteachersandschoolleadersinsearchingforalternativestohelpstudentswithlearningdifficulties.Inaddition,financialincentivesandtargetsforreductionofrepetitioncanbeintroducedintoaccountabilitysystems.Forexample,inFrancerepetitionlevelshavesubstantiallydecreasedsincespecifictargetstoholdschoolsaccountableforgraderepetitionrateswereestablishedinparallelwithindividualisedsupportandcatchupopportunities.2.2AvoidearlytrackinganddeferstudentselectiontouppersecondaryChallenge:earlystudentselectionisacommonpracticeStudentselectionreferstotrackingstudentsintodifferentstudyprogrammesorgroupingthemintoclassroomsaccordingtotheirabilities,eitherinallorfewsubjects.SelectionoccursinallOECDcountries,butthereareimportantdifferencesbetweencountriesinthetimingandformofthisselection.Withanaverageageoffirstformalselectionat14yearsacrossOECD(OECD,2010b),somecountries,suchasFinland,NorwayorSpain,havenon-selectiveandcomprehensiveschoolsystemsuptotheendoflowersecondaryeducation.OthercountriessuchasAustriaandGermany,respondtothediversitychallengebysortingchildrenbetweendifferentcurriculaorlevelsofdifficultywhentheyarejust10yearsold,withtheaimofservingthemaccordingtotheirlearningneedsandacademicpotential.Also,intheUnitedStatesandCanada,forexample,morethan90%of15year-oldstudentsareinschoolsthatgroupstudentsbyability(SeeFigure2.3).Theseearlytrackingpracticesmayresultingreaterinequitiesandastrongerinfluenceofsocioeconomicbackgroundoneducation.Evidence:academicselectionwidensachievementgapsandinequitiesProponentsofgroupingstudentsaccordingtotheirperformancesuggestthatstudentslearnbetterwhengroupedwithotherslikethemselvesandwhenteachingcanbeadaptedtotheirneeds.Incontrast,evidenceshowsthatearlystudentselectionhasanegativeimpactonstudentsassignedtolowertracks,withoutraisingtheperformanceofthewholestudentpopulation(HanushekandWoessmann,2006).Lessdemandingtrackstendtoprovidelessstimulatinglearningenvironmentsandfuelaviciouscycleintheexpectationsofteachersandstudents.Also,students’placedinlessdemandingtracksdonotbenefitfromthepositiveeffectsofbeingaroundmorecapablepeers(HanushekandWoessmann,2006).Evidenceshowsthatthetrackwherestudentsareassignedhasagreatimpactontheireducationalandlifeprospects(ShavitandMüller,2006).Inaddition,selectionexacerbatesinequitiessincestudentsfromdisadvantagedbackgroundsaremorelikelytobeplacedintheleastacademicallyorientedtracksorgroups(SpinathandSpinath,2005).Forexample,studentswithanimmigrantbackground,whentrackedatanearlystage,maybelockedintoalowereducationalenvironmentbeforetheyhavehadachancetodevelopthelinguistic,socialandculturalskillstoattaintheirmaximumpotential(OECD,2010c).Delayselectionandadoptcomprehensiveschoolinguntiluppersecondaryschool.ManyOECDcountrieshaveadoptedcomprehensiveeducationmeasures,andraisedtheageoffirsttrackingorpostponedittoalaterstageoftheeducationalprocess–mostcommonlytotheendoflowersecondaryeducation.TheNordiccountrieswereamongthefirsttomakethechangeinthe1970sandbecameareferenceofcomprehensiveeducationsystems.OneofthemostrecentreformswasundertakeninPoland,whereearlytrackingwaspostponedoneyear,untiltheageof15.Thereformraisedstudents’performancesubstantially,particularlyforthosestudentsthatwouldhavebeenassignedintovocationaltracks,withouthinderingtheperformanceoftopachievers(Wisniewski,2007).Reducethelevelofearlytrackingbyeliminatinglowleveltracks.Incontextswherekeystakeholdersmaybereluctanttoendearlytracking,suppressinglow-leveltracksorgroupsorensuringthattheseofferequivalenteducationopportunitiesandoutcomestootherpathwayscanmitigatesomeofthenegativeeffectsoftracking.Thiscouldbeparticularlybeneficialinsystemsinwhichtherearedifferentandveryimpermeabletracksinahierarchy.Inrecentyears,Austria,Luxembourg,SlovakRepublicandsomeGermanstateshavetakenstepsinthisdirection.Limitthenegativeeffectsofearlyselection.Incountrieswherestudentsaretracked,streamedorgroupedbyabilityearly,avarietyofpoliciesandpracticescanbeexploredtolimitthenegativeeffectsandembracedifferentiatedinstructioninmixed-abilitysettings.Oneoptionistolimitabilitygroupingtospecificsubjectsorreplaceitwithshort-termflexiblegroupingforspecificpurposes,whileclassesremainheterogeneous.Forinstance,Nordiccountriesusetemporarygroupingswiththepossibilityofchanginggroups,whichallowflexibilitytomeetspecificacademicneedsduringtheschoolyear.Anotheroptionconsistsinincreasingflexibilitytochangetracksorclassrooms,andimprovingtheselectionmethodsforthedifferenttracksorgroups.Afurtheroptionistoensurethatalltracksgivestudentsachallengingcurriculumandhighqualityinstruction.2.3.ManageschoolchoicetoavoidsegregationandincreasedinequitiesChallenge:schoolchoiceisarealityinOECDcountriesInthelast25years,morethantwo-thirdsofOECDcountrieshaveincreasedtheextentofparentalschoolchoiceinpublicly(andinsomecountriesalsoprivately)fundedschools.Advocatesoftenarguethatschoolchoicewouldallowallstudents–includingdisadvantagedonesandthoseattendinglowperformingschools–tooptforhigherqualityschools,astheintroductionofchoiceineducationcanfosterefficiency,spurinnovationandraisequalityoverall.Theevidencehowevershowsthatchoice,ifnotwellmanaged,cangenerategreaterinequalities,withoutnecessarilyraisingoverallperformance.Researchhasshownthatoversubscribedschoolsareselectiveintheiradmissionsandtendtopreferstudentswhoareeasiertoteachandmoreabletolearn,crowdingoutstudentswithlowperformance教育的公平與質量———支持弱勢學生與學校前言：全球化的經濟、日益密切的人群聯系以及快速的技術變革正在給人類和整個社會帶來巨大的挑戰(zhàn)。教育系統(tǒng)正在反思目前學生所具備的知識和技能能否成功達到教育戰(zhàn)略對兒童培養(yǎng)的要求。在亞洲和北美地區(qū)，城市的教學系統(tǒng)是遵循政策實施的軌跡的。這就是在最關鍵的挑戰(zhàn)和最創(chuàng)新的工程所需要解決的問題。因此，亞洲協會舉辦的全球城市教育網組織，一個在北美和亞洲的網站，去動用所有的城市教育資源從中尋找機遇與挑戰(zhàn)并改善他們。一個高效的教學系統(tǒng)的關鍵因素是，他們不僅將其他國家的做法用作參考，而且在自己的文化和政治背景下適應并且實施這些做法。全球城市教育網的目的是一種為教育工作者設計的機制，同時亞洲和北美洲的決策者為了協作的提供一種符合國際實情的解決方案，而且這一教育系統(tǒng)與目前的教育資源結合情況良好。將網絡技術運用到深入地調查、計劃和執(zhí)行以解決某些關于如何實現教育公平的主題上。在全球城市網絡教育研討會上以案例研究等形式，每輪會議的議題都包括知識的分享和問題的解決。其總體目標是從研究和經驗中發(fā)展處實際的智慧，并以此證明網絡城市是有前途的，并可以用來加強網絡的有效性以及發(fā)展世界各地的城市教育系統(tǒng)。本報告主要介紹了來自經合組織關于公平教育的主要建議：支持弱勢的學校和學時（2012年）這反應了目前的政策水平，這對于構建高品質和公平的教育系統(tǒng)非常有幫助，尤其是北美和亞太國家。在以亞洲協會全球城市網絡作為主體的研討會上，在經合組織教育部門的支持下，這個想法已經進入籌備階段。我們要感謝全球城市教育網絡的贊助商包括：摩根大通基金會，大都會人壽基金會，卡內基公司，皮爾森基金會和休利特基金會。我們希望這一系列報告提供的知識有助于在亞洲和北美乃至其他國家的城市中創(chuàng)造促進所有學生公平教育的條件。教育公平：一個關鍵的挑戰(zhàn)高效的教育體系是指那些質量與公平相結合。教育公平是指個人或社會的情況，如性別，種族或家庭背景不構成實現教育潛力（公平的定義）和所有個人達到技能（包括定義）至少有一個基本的最低水平的障礙。在這些教育系統(tǒng)中，學生絕大多數有機會獲得高層次的技能，無論自己的個人和社會經濟情況。以亞太地區(qū)為例，韓國，上海，中國和日本的教育系統(tǒng)是在質量和公平上以達到較高水準的幾個例子。在北美，加拿大這樣的國家也是如此。然而，即使是在高性能系統(tǒng)中，一定數量的學生仍然無法獲得最基本的教育，這將阻礙他們的未來以及整個社會的進步。納入教育體系的程度可以通過無法獲得高中教育個體的數量占整體的百分比來衡量（經濟合作與發(fā)展組織，2012）。2009年的國際學生評估項目中，經濟合作與發(fā)展組織國家中，19％的15歲學生在閱讀項目中獲得了低于等級二的成績，這就意味著幾乎五分之一的經合組織國家中的青年人缺乏基本的識字能力，在某些國家這個比例甚至高于25%。那些缺乏基本技能的青年會從教育系統(tǒng)中輟學，并且不會完成高中教育，他們僅僅擁有低技能，并且毫無準備地進入勞動力市場。要是他們繼續(xù)學習的話，這就意味著他們將比同齡人付出更多的努力和需要更多（昂貴）的支持。事實上，在經合組織國家中25-34歲的孩子沒有達到高中教育的比例達到將近20%。盡管差異性非常大，韓國這一比例為3％，然而在土耳其這一比例高達62％（經合組織，2011）。學生背景在許多國家對他們的學業(yè)成就有很顯著的影響，通常情況下，低社會經濟背景和低效能會集合在特定人群中。弱勢學生在測試中低于等級二的數量的增加將被解讀為是教育系統(tǒng)公平性的一個指標（經合組織，2012）。例如，在韓國，沒有達到基本的技能的少數學生往往被認定為弱勢學生。在這個國家，來自于低社會經濟地位的學生表現出低效能的可能性比來自高地位的學生高3.5倍。降低學業(yè)失敗的可能性對個人或者社會以及社會經濟的發(fā)展都很有幫助。學業(yè)失敗和輟學的經濟社會成本很高，然而早一些投資并且持續(xù)到高中完成的做法更有效率。一個至少獲得高中教育的人擁有更好的就業(yè)和健康的生活，導致他通過繳納高稅收向公共社會給與更多貢獻。更多受過教育的人致力于可持續(xù)發(fā)展的經濟，同時較少的依賴公共援助和較少受到經濟衰退的影響，反過來更好的促進社會公平發(fā)展（經合組織，2011年）。教育是經合組織國家發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略的核心要素。為了長期運行有效，能夠從教育中收獲益處必須讓學生盡可能接觸優(yōu)質的教育，并且盡可能能夠呆到高中教育結束，以確保獲得足夠的技能和知識，這些技能和知識會對他們在職場上找到自己的為止有所幫助。有兩個非常重要的戰(zhàn)略可以實施：·通過設計一個有利于教育公平的教育系統(tǒng)：更具體的說是，早期的追蹤、重復、確認學生沒有選擇一個低質量的教育計劃，這往往會放大社會和經濟的劣勢，從而導致學業(yè)的失敗。第二部分評估系統(tǒng)實施情況，并提供五項建議避免學業(yè)失敗，促進高中教育的競爭。這可以幫助強化整個系統(tǒng)公平，所有這些行為對貧困學生都是非常有利的，同時又不會妨礙其他學生的學習進度?！ねㄟ^關注和支持弱勢學校：學校擁有弱勢學生的比例越高，面臨問題的風險的比例也越高，這可能影響作為一個整體的教育系統(tǒng)。低效的弱勢學校常常缺乏有能力的人才的支持。按照經驗，作為學校的領導和老師，教師和社區(qū)環(huán)境，沒法提供優(yōu)質的學習必須條件是導致弱勢學校的關鍵因素。第三章節(jié)提出了五項政策建議以達到有效支持弱勢學校的發(fā)展。雖然這適用于所有學校，但是他們對低效的弱勢學校尤其有效，因為這樣做，他們更有可能實現自身的進步。在任何國家，應對這些挑戰(zhàn)都是一項艱巨的任務。強大而持續(xù)的政府支持以及領導持續(xù)的關注只能對教育系統(tǒng)發(fā)展的影響起到短暫的效果。這還需要政策在設計和實施過程中考慮到自身結構的問題，從這方面講，設置一個高的目標以及設立高標準對提升整體教育公平有更顯著的作用。（第四章節(jié)）追蹤制度層面的政策如何阻礙教育公平教育系統(tǒng)以及實現教育公平的途徑需要被設計出來，既強化公平也能使學生成功。然而，一些制度層面的政策，例如六級和提前跟蹤，都能放大社會經濟差距，促使輟學行為的發(fā)生，而其他政策卻能緩解他們（Causa和Chapuis，2009年）。本節(jié)提出并發(fā)展處五個具體的制度層面的政策杠桿，用以減少教育不平等并有助于提高整體的性能。2.1消除留級難題：留級是經合組織國家的普遍做法留級主要發(fā)生在，當一個學生經過正式或者非正式的評估，必須在同一水平再進行一年的額外學習，而不是和他的同齡人一樣晉升到人生的下一個學習階段。留級普遍發(fā)生在許多經合組織國家：13%的15歲學生被報道需要