愛因斯坦的簡(jiǎn)介英文愛因斯坦英文簡(jiǎn)介

[愛因斯坦的簡(jiǎn)介英文]愛因斯坦英文簡(jiǎn)介阿爾伯特愛因斯坦主要成就

relativity

Thecreationofspecialrelativity:

Asearlyastheageof16,Einsteinlearnedfromthebookthatthelightismovingrapidlywiththespeedofelectromagneticwaves,linkedtothis,hewouldliketoexploretheso-calledetherwiththelightoftheproblem.ThenameoftheethercomesfromGreece,torepresentthebasicelementsthatmakeuptheobjectsofheaven.The17thcenturyDescartesandthesubsequentChristianHuygenspioneeredanddevelopedthetheoryofether,thattheetheristhemediumoflightpropagation,itisfullofspace,includingvacuum,andcanpenetrateintothematerial.Unlikeether,Newtonmadethelightparticlessay.Newtonbelievesthattheluminousbodyisemittedbyalinearmotionofparticlesofparticlesflow,particleflowimpactoftheretinacausedvision.18thcenturyNewtonsparticlessaidtheupperhand,the19thcentury,itisvolatilethataccountedforanabsoluteadvantage.Thetheoryofetherisalsogreatlydeveloped:thewaveoftheneedformediatransmission,lightinthevacuumisthetransmissionofthemedia,alsoknownaslightether.Atthesametime,theelectromagnetismhasbeenflourishing,throughtheMaxwell,Hertzandotherseffortstoformamatureelectromagneticphenomenondynamicstheory-electrodynamics,andfromthetheoryandpracticetoprovethatthelightisacertainfrequencyrangeofelectromagneticwaves,Thusunifyingthewavetheoryoflightandelectromagnetictheory.Theetherisnotonlythecarrierofthelight,butalsothecarrieroftheelectromagneticfield.Untiltheendofthenineteenthcentury,peopletriedtofindtheether,butneverfoundintheexperimentether,onthecontrary,MichelsonMoreyexperimentfoundthattheetherisunlikelytoexist.

ThedevelopmentofelectromagnetismwasoriginallyincorporatedintotheframeworkofNewtonianmechanics,butininterpretingtheelectromagneticprocessofmovingobjectsitwasfoundthattherelativityprinciplefollowedbyNewtonianmechanicswasinconsistent.AccordingtoMaxwellstheory,thevelocityofelectromagneticwavesinvacuum,thatis,thespeedoflightisconstant;however,accordingtoNewtonsmethodofvelocityaddition,thespeedoflightofdifferentinertiallinesisdifferent.Forexample,twocars,oneapproachingtoyou,oneaway.Youseethelightsofthefrontcarclosetoyou,afteracarlightaway.AccordingtoGalileotheory,thecarcomingtoyouwillemitlightwithaspeedgreaterthanc(vacuumlightvelocity3.0x10^8m/s),thatis,thespeedofthelightinfrontofthevehicle=speedoflight+speed;andthespeedoflightfromthevehicleislessthanThespeedoftherearcarlight=speedoflight-speed.Butaccordingtothespeedofthetwolightthesame,becauseinMaxwellstheory,thespeedofthecardoesnotaffectthespreadoflight,thatwhiteregardlessofhowthecar,thespeedoflightisequaltoc.MaxwellandGalileoonthespeedoftheargumentisclearlycontrary!

Einsteinseemstobetheonewhowillbuildanewphysicsbuilding.EinsteincarefullystudiedMaxwellstheoryofelectromagnetism,especiallythroughthedevelopmentandelaborationofelectrodynamicsbyHertzandLorentz.Einsteinfirmlybelievesthattheelectromagnetictheoryiscompletelycorrect,butthereisaproblemthatmakeshimuneasy,thisistheabsolutereferencetothepresenceoftheether.Hereadmanyoftheworksfoundthateveryonetriedtoprovethattheexistenceoftheethertestisafailure.AfterstudyingEinsteinfoundthat,inadditiontotheabsolutereferencesystemandtheelectromagneticfieldoftheload,theetherintheLorentztheoryhasnopracticalsignificance.

Einsteinlovestoreadphilosophicalworksandabsorbthoughtandnutritionfromphilosophy,andhebelievesintheunityandlogicalcoherenceoftheworld.ThesuspicionofthegeneralvalidityofthecausallawatDavidHumeintheOlympiaAcademyofScienceshashadanimpactonEinstein.Theprincipleofrelativityhasbeenwidelyprovedinmechanics,butcannotbeestablishedinelectrodynamics,forthetwotheoreticalsystemsofphysicsinthelogicalinconsistency,Einsteinraiseddoubts.Inhisview,theprincipleofrelativityshouldbegenerallyestablished,sotheelectromagnetictheoryforeachinertialsystemshouldhavethesameform,butherethereistheproblemofspeedoflight.Whetherthespeedoflightisconstantorvariable,becomestheprimaryproblemofwhethertheprincipleofrelativityisuniversallyestablished.Atthattimethephysicistsgenerallybelievedintheether,thatis,believethatthereisanabsolutereferencesystem,whichisaffectedbytheconceptofNewtonsabsolutespace.Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,Machinthedevelopmentofmechanics,criticizedtheNewtonsabsoluteviewoftimeandspace,whichgaveEinsteinleftadeepimpression.OnedayinMay1905,EinsteinandafriendBessodiscussedthisissuehasbeenexploredfortenyears,BezuoinaccordancewiththeMarxistpointofviewtoelaboratetheirviews,thetwodiscussedforalongtime.Suddenly,Einsteinrealizedwhat,backhomeafterrepeatedthinking,andfinallywanttounderstandtheproblem.Thenextday,hecametothePesofamily,said:Thankyou,myproblemsolved.TheoriginalEinsteinwantedtoclearonething:thereisnoabsolutedefinitionoftime,timeandthespeedoftheopticalsignalhasaninseparablelink.Hefoundthekeytounlock,afterfiveweeksofhardwork,Einsteintothespecialtheoryofrelativityinfrontofpeople.

June30,1905,theGermanYearbookofPhysicsacceptedtheEinsteinspaperonthedynamicofelectromagnetism,publishedinthesameyearinSeptemberissue.Thispaperisthefirstarticleonthetheoryofspecialrelativity,whichcontainsthebasicideaandbasiccontentofthespecialtheoryofrelativity.Thespecialtheoryofrelativityisbasedontwoprinciples:theprincipleofrelativityandtheprincipleofconstantspeedoflight.Einsteinssolutiontotheproblemisthathebelievesintheprincipleofrelativity.Galileofirstclarifiedtheideaofrelativity,buthedidnotgiveacleardefinitionoftimeandspace.Newtonalsoestablishedtherelativityofthemechanicalsystem,butdefinedtheabsolutespace,absolutetimeandabsolutemovement,inthisissueheiscontradictory.AndEinsteingreatlydevelopedtheprincipleofrelativity,inhisview,thereisnoabsolutestaticspace,thesamedoesnotexistabsolutelythesametime,allthetimeandspaceareassociatedwiththemovementoftheobjecttogether.Foranyframeofreferenceandcoordinatesystem,thereisonlyspaceandtimebelongingtothisframeofreferenceandcoordinatesystem.

Foralltheinertialsystem,theuseofthereferencesystemofspaceandtimetoexpressthephysicallaws,theirformisthesame,thisistheprincipleofrelativity,strictlyspeaking,theprincipleofrelativityinthenarrowsense.Inthisarticle,Einsteindidnotdiscusstheconstantspeedoflightasabasisforthebasicprinciple,heproposedthesamespeedoflightisaboldassumption,fromtheelectromagnetictheoryandtheprincipleofrelativityrequirementsputforward.ThisarticleistheresultofEinsteinsthinkingabouttheissueofethericsandelectrodynamicsovertheyears.Hehasestablishedanewtimeandspacetheoryfromthepointofviewoftherelativityofthesametime,andonthebasisofthenewspace-timetheoryElectromynamicsinacompleteform,theetherisnolongernecessary,theetherraftisnotthere.

Whatisthereciprocityofthesimultaneous?ThetwoeventsindifferentplacesHowcanweknowthatitishappeningatthesametime?Ingeneral,wewillconfirmbysignal.Inordertoknowthesimultaneityoftheoff-siteeventswehavetoknowthespeedofsignaltransmission,buthowtomeasurethisspeed?Wemustmeasurethespacedistancebetweenthetwoplacesandthetimerequiredforsignaltransmission,spacedistancemeasurementisverysimple,Thetroubleistomeasurethetime,wemustassumethateachofthetwohasagoodclock,fromthetwoclocksofthereadingcanknowthetimeofsignaltransmission.Buthowdoweknowtheclocksindifferentplaces?Theansweristhatthereisaneedforasignal.Ifthesignalinaccordancewiththepreviousideas,itneedsanewsignal,soinfiniteback,off-siteatthesametimecannotactuallyconfirm.Butonethingisclear,atthesametimewillbeassociatedwithasignal,orwesaythatthesetwothingshappenatthesametimeismeaningless.

Theopticalsignalmaybethemostappropriatesignalfortheclock,butthespeedoflightisnotinfinite,thusproducinganovelconclusion,forthestationaryobserveratthesametimetwothings,forthemovementoftheobserverisnotthesametime.Weenvisionahigh-speedtrainthatrunsatspeedsclosetothespeedoflight.Whenthetrainpassesthroughtheplatform,Astandsontheplatform,twolightningstrokesinfrontoftheeye,oneatthefrontofthetrain,oneattheback,andattheendsofthetrainandthecorrespondingpartsoftheplatform,Thedistancebetweenthetwoendsofthetrainisequal,theconclusionisthatAisalsoseentwolightning.SoforA,thetworeceivedopticalsignalspropagatethesamedistanceatthesametimeintervalandarriveatthesametime,bothofwhichmustoccuratthesametime,andtheyaresimultaneous.ButforthemiddleofthetraininsidetheB,thesituationisdifferent,becauseBandhigh-speedtrainrunningtogether,sohewillfirstinterceptthefrontofthesignalforwardedtohim,andthenreceivedfromthebackoftheopticalsignal.Forthesecondthing,thetwoeventsaredifferent.Inotherwords,thesimultaneityisnotabsolute,butdependsontheobserversmovement.ThisconclusionnegatestheabsolutetimeandabsolutespatialframeworkthatisbasedonNewtonianmechanics.

Relativityholdsthatthespeedoflightdoesnotchangeinallinertialreferenceframes,itisthemaximumvelocityoftheobjectmovement.Duetotherelativisticeffect,thelengthofthemovingobjectbecomesshorterandthetimeofthemovingobjectexpands.Butbecauseoftheproblemsencounteredindailylife,themovementspeedisverylow(comparedwiththespeedoflight),donotseetherelativisticeffect.

Einsteinestablishedthetheoryofrelativityonthebasisoftheradicalchangeofspaceandtime,andpointedoutthatthequalityincreaseswiththeincreaseofspeed,andwhenthespeedisclosetothespeedoflight,thequalitytendstoinfinity.Healsogivesthefamousqualitativerelationship:E=mc^2,thequalitativerelationshiphasplayedaguidingroleinthelaterdevelopmentoftheatomicenergyindustry.

Theestablishmentofgeneralrelativity:

In1905,Einsteinpublishedthefirstarticleonthetheoryofspecialrelativity(ie,thedynamicsofthedynamics),anddidnotimmediatelyarousedgreatrepercussions.ButtheGermanphysicist,Planck,tooknoteofhisessaythatEinsteinsworkwascomparabletothatofCopernicus,andthatrelativityquicklybecameasubjectofresearchanddiscussion,Einsteinhasalsoreceivedtheattentionofacademia.

In1907,Einsteinlistenedtotheproposalofthefriend,submittedthefamouspapertoapplyfortheFederalUniversityofthelecturerposts,buttheansweristhepapercannotunderstand.AlthoughintheGermanphysicsAlbertEinsteinhasbeenveryfamous,butinSwitzerland,hewasnotauniversityfaculty,manyprestigiouspeoplebegantoinjurehim,in1908,EinsteinfinallygotthelecturerOfthepost,andinthesecondyearwhentheassociateprofessor.In1912,Einsteinbecameaprofessor,in1913,attheinvitationofPlanckasthenewlyestablisheddirectoroftheInstituteofPhysicsandtheUniversityofBerlinprofessor.

Duringthisperiod,Einstein,inconsideringthepromotionoftherelativitythathadbeenestablished,hadtwoquestionsthatmadehimuneasy.Thefirstisthegravitationalproblem,thespecialtheoryofrelativityformechanics,thermodynamicsandelectrodynamicsofthephysicallawiscorrect,butitcannotexplainthegravitationalproblem.Newtonsgravitationaltheoryissuperfluous,andthegravitationalforcebetweenthetwoobjectsistransmittedinstantaneously,thatis,ataninfinitevelocity,whichiscontrarytotheviewoftherelativisticfieldandthelimitofthespeedoflight.Thesecondistheproblemofnon-inertia,thespecialtheoryofrelativityandthepreviousphysicallaws,areonlyapplicabletotheinertialsystem.Butinfactitisdifficulttofindtherealinertia.Logically,allnaturallawsshouldnotbeconfinedtotheinertialsystem,mustbeconsiderednon-inertialsystem.Narrativerelativityisdifficulttoexplaintheso-calledtwinsparadox,theparadoxisthatthereisapairoftwinbrothers,brotherinthespacecraftnearthespeedoflighttodocosmicvoyage,accordingtotherelativisticeffect,high-speedmovementoftheclockslow,Comeback,mybrotherhasbecomeveryold,becausetheearthhasgonethroughfordecades.Inaccordancewiththeprincipleofrelativity,spacecraftrelativetotheEarthshigh-speedmovement,theEarthisalsohigh-speedmovementrelativetothespacecraft,brothertoseehisbrotherbecomeyoung,brothertoseehisbrothershouldbeyoung.Thisquestionsimplycannotanswer.Infact,thenarrowsenseofrelativityonlydealwithuniformlinearmotion,andbrothertocomebackmustgothroughavariablespeedmovementprocess,whichisrelativisticcannothandle.Einsteiniscontinuingtodothegeneraltheoryofrelativitywhenpeoplearebusycomprehendingrelativelyspecificrelativity.

In1907,Einsteinwrotealongarticleonthetheoryofrelativityandtheresultingconclusionsonthetheoryofrelativity,inwhichEinsteinfirstmentionedtheprincipleofequivalence,andsincethen,EinsteinTheideaofequivalenceisevolving.Basedonthenaturallawofinertialmassandgravitationalmassasthebasisoftheequivalentprinciple,itisproposedthattheuniformgravitationalfieldintheinfinitesmallvolumecanreplacethereferenceframeofacceleratingmotion.Einsteinandputforwardaclosedboxsaying:inaclosedboxoftheobserver,nomatterwhatmethodcannotdeterminewhetherheisstillinagravitationalfield,orintheabsenceofgravitationalfieldinthespaceforacceleratedmovement,Whichisthemostcommonlyusedtoexplaintheprincipleofequivalence,andinertiaqualityandgravitationalqualityisequivalenttotheprincipleofanaturalreasoning.

InNovember1915,EinsteinpresentedfourpaperstothePrussianAcademyofSciences.Inthesefourpapers,heproposedanewviewofMercurysrecentpointofadvanceandgiventhecorrectgravitationalfieldequation.Atthispoint,thebasicproblemsofgeneralrelativityaresolved,thegeneraltheoryofrelativitywasborn.In1916,Einsteincompletedthelongthesisthebasisofgeneraltheoryofrelativity,inthisarticle,Einsteinfirstappliedtotheinertialsystemofrelativityknownasthespecialtheoryofrelativity,willonlyfortheinertialsystemofthesamelawsTheprincipleiscalledtheprincipleofnarrowrelativity,andfurtherexpressestheprincipleofgeneralrelativity:thelawofphysicsmustbeestablishedforanywayinwhichthesystemofmotionisestablished.

Einsteinsgeneraltheoryofrelativityholdsthat,duetotheexistenceofmatter,spaceandtimewillbend,andthegravitationalfieldisactuallyacurvedtimeandspace.Einsteinstheoryofusingthesunsgravitytobendthespaceisagoodexplanationforthe43secondsthatMercuryhasbeenunabletoexplaininthepast.Thesecondlargestpredictorofgeneralrelativityisgravitationalredshift,thatis,inthestronggravitationalfieldtotheredsideofthemovement,20years,astronomersinastronomicalobservationsconfirmedthispoint.Thethirdlargestpredictorofgeneralrelativityisthatthegravitationalfielddeflectsthelightandthegravitationalfieldclosesttotheearthisthesunsgravitationalfield.Einsteinpredictedthatdistantstarswouldhaveaseven-seconddeflectioniftheysweptthroughthesun.In1919,undertheencouragementofBritishastronomerEddington,theBritishsenttwoexpeditionstoobservethetotalsolareclipseintwoplaces.Aftercarefulstudy,thefinalconclusionwasthatthestarlightdidoccurinthevicinityofthesunSecondsofdeflection.TheRoyalSocietyandtheRoyalAstronomicalSocietyofficiallyreadtheobservationreportandconfirmthattheconclusionofgeneralrelativityiscorrect.ThisisthemostsignificantachievementofthetheoryofgravitationsincetheNewtonera,saidEinsteinstheoryofrelativity,thegreatestachievementofhumanthought,saidthefamousphysicistandpresidentoftheRoyalSociety,one.Einsteinbecameajournalist,hewrotein1916apopulartheoryofrelativity,narrowandgeneraltheoryofrelativity,to1922hasbeenrepublished40times,wastranslatedintoadozenlanguages,widelyspread.

Relativisticsignificance:

Sincetheestablishmentofthespecialtheoryofrelativityandgeneralrelativity,ithasbeenalongtime,ithaswithstoodthetestofpracticeandhistory,iswidelyrecognizedasthetruth.Relativityhasagreatinfluenceonthedevelopmentofmodernphysicsandthedevelopmentofmodernhumanthought.Relativityfromthelogicalthinkingoftheunityoftheclassicalphysics,sothattheclassicphysicstobecomeaperfectscientificsystem.Onthebasisofthetheoryofspecialrelativity,thetheoryofrelativityofthespecialrelativityofNewtonianmechanicsandMaxwellselectrodynamicssystemisunified.Itispointedoutthattheyareobeyingtheprincipleofrelativityandrelativity,whichisthecovarianceofLorentztransformation.Newtonianmechanicsisonlyamatteroflow-Agoodapproximationoflaw.Onthebasisofthegeneralizedcovariance,onthebasisofthegeneralizedcovariance,therelationshipbetweenthelocalinertialengthandtheuniversalreferencecoefficientisestablishedbytheequivalentprinciple.Thegeneralizedcovariantformofallphysicallawsisobtained,andthegravitationalforceTheory,andNewtongravitationaltheoryisonlyitsfirstapproximation.Thisisfundamentallyresolvedbeforethephysicsislimitedtotheproblemofinertia,fromthelogictogetareasonablearrangement.Relativityexaminesthebasicconceptsofphysics,time,space,materialandmovement,andgivesascientificandsystematicviewoftimeandspaceandmaterialview,sothatphysicscanbecomeaperfectscientificsysteminlogic.

Thespecialrelativitygivesthelawofmotionoftheobjectunderhighspeedmotion,andsuggeststhatthequalityandenergyareequivalent,andthequalitativerelationshipisgiven.Thesetwooutcomesarenotobviousforlow-speedmacroobjects,butinthestudyofmicroscopicparticlesshowedextremeimportance.Becausethespeedofmicro-particlesaregenerallyfaster,someclosetoevenreachthespeedoflight,sothephysicsofparticlescannotbeseparatedfromthetheoryofrelativity.Thequalitativerelationshipnotonlycreatesthenecessaryconditionsfortheestablishmentanddevelopmentofquantumtheory,butalsoprovidesthebasisforthedevelopmentandapplicationofnuclearphysics.

ForEinsteinsintroductionofthesenewconcepts,mostofthephysicistsonearth,includingtherelativistictransformationofthefounderofLorentz,areunacceptable.Somepeopleevensaid,Atthattimetheworldonlytwoandahalfpeopleunderstandthetheoryofrelativity.Theoldmethodofthinkingobstacles,sothatthisnewphysicaltheoryuntilagenerationafterthemajorityofphysicistsarefamiliarwith,eventheSwedishRoyalAcademyofSciences,in1922theNobelPrizeinPhysicsawardedtoEinstein,onlysaidBecauseofhiscontributiontotheoreticalphysics,butalsobecausehefoundthelawofthephotoelectriceffect.EinsteinsNobelPrizeinphysicsawardsevenforEinsteinstheoryofrelativitydidnotmention(Note:RelativityhasnotwontheNobelPrize,animportantreasonisthelackofalotoffactstoverify.)

Photoelectriceffect

In1905,Einsteinproposedphotonhypothesis,successfullyexplainedthephotoelectriceffect,sowonthe1921NobelPrizeinPhysics.

Lightisirradiatedontothemetal,causingtheelectricalpropertiesofthematerialtochange.Thisphenomenonoflighttransmissioniscalledthephotoelectriceffect(Photoelectriceffect).

Photoelectriceffectisdividedintophotoelectronemission,photoconductiveeffectandphotovoltageeffect.Theformerphenomenonoccursonthesurfaceoftheobject,alsoknownasexternalphotoelectriceffect.Thelattertwophenomenaoccurwithintheobject,knownasthephotoelectriceffect.

Hertzdiscoveredthephotoelectriceffectin1887,andEinsteinfirstsucceededinexplainingthephotoelectriceffect(theeffectthatthemetalsurfaceemitselectronsundertheactionoflight,theelectronsemittedarecalledphotoelectrons).Whenthewavelengthoflightislessthanacertaincriticalvalue,itcanemitelectrons,thatis,thelimitwavelength,andthefrequencyofthecorrespondinglightiscalledthelimitfrequency.Thecriticalvaluedependsonthemetalmaterial,andtheenergyoftheemittedelectronsdependsonthewavelengthofthelightandhasnothingtodowiththelightintensity,whichcannotbeexplainedbythefluctuationoflight.Thereisalsoacontradictionwiththevolatilityoflight,thatis,theinstantaneousnatureofthephotoelectriceffect,accordingtovolatilitytheory,iftheincidentlightisweak,theirradiationtimeislonger,themetalcanaccumulateenoughenergy,flyoutofmetalsurface.Thefactisthataslongasthefrequencyoflightishigherthanthelimitfrequencyofthemetal,thebrightnessofthelight,whetherstrongorweak,isalmostinstantaneous,andnomorethantennegativenine.Thecorrectexplanationisthatthelightmustbecomposedofastrictlydefinedenergyunit(ie,photonorphoton)associatedwiththewavelength.

Photoelectriceffect,theelectrondirectionoftheinjectionisnotcompletelydirectional,butmostareperpendiculartothemetalsurface,andthedirectionoflighthasnothingtodo,justelectromagneticwaves,butjusthighfrequencyoscillationoftheorthogonalelectromagneticfield,theamplitudeissmall,Electronemissiondirection.

Conservationofenergy

E=mc,materialimmortallaw,thatisthequalityofthematerialimmortal;energyconservationlaw,thatisthematerialenergyconservation.

Althoughthesetwogreatlawshavebeendiscovered,butpeoplethinkthatthisisthetwoirrelevantlaws,eachofthedifferentlawsofnature.Evensomepeoplethinkthatmaterialimmortalityisalawofchemistry,thelawofconservationofenergyisaphysicallaw,theybelongtodifferentareasofscience.

Einsteinbelievesthatthequalityofmatterisameasureofinertia,energyisameasureofmovement;energyandqualityarenotisolatedfromeachother,butinterrelated,inseparable.Changesinthequalityoftheobject,willmakethecorrespondingchangesinenergy;andchangesintheenergyoftheobject,butalsothequalityofthecorrespondingchanges.

Inthespecialtheoryofrelativity,Einsteinputforwardthefamousqualitativeformula:E=mc^2(whereErepresentsenergy,mrepresentshowmuchquality,crepresentsthespeedoflight,theapproximatevalueof310^8m/s,whichIndicatingthatenergycanbecreatedwithreducedquality).

Einsteinsqualitativerelationshipformula,correctlyexplainedthevariousnuclearreactions:takehelium4(He4),itsnucleiarecomposedoftwoprotonsandtwoneutrons.Thequalityofthehelium4nucleusisequaltothesumoftwoprotonsandtwoneutronmasses.Infact,thisarithmeticisnotestablished,thequalityofheliumnucleithantwoprotons,twoneutronmassesandthesumof0.0302u(atomicmassunits)!Whyisthis?Becausewhenthetwodeuterons(eachdeuteriumNucleuscontainsoneproton,oneneutron)isaggregatedintoahelium4nucleus,there