語言學(xué)重點(diǎn)概念

ChapteroneIntroduction

一、定義

1.語言學(xué)Linguistics

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

2.普通語言學(xué)GeneralLinguistics

ThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.

3.語言language

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

語言是人類用來交際的任意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。

4.識(shí)別特征DesignFeatures

Itreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemof

communication.

語言識(shí)別特征是指人類語言區(qū)別與其他任何動(dòng)物的交際體系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性

Productivity多產(chǎn)性

Duality雙重性

Displacement移位性

Culturaltransmission文化傳遞

(Darbitrariness

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguage

tohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions

⑵Productivity

Animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.

(3)Duality

Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.

(4)Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

(5)Culturaltransmission

Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsof

anylanguagesystem,thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted,notbyinstinct,animalsare

bornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.

5.語言能力Competence

Competenceistheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.

6.語言運(yùn)用performance

Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

語言運(yùn)用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語言交際中的體現(xiàn)。

7.歷時(shí)語言學(xué)Diachroniclinguistics

Thestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime,adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,which

studiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.

8.共時(shí)語言學(xué)Synchronicallinguistics

Thestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.

9.語言langue

Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.

10.言語parole

Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.

11.規(guī)定性Prescriptive

Itaimstolaydownrulesfbr“correct"behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshould

notsay.

12.描述性Descriptive

Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.

二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)

1.languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it'sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocial

environmentbyhumanbeings.

語言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在一定的社會(huì)環(huán)境下進(jìn)行的一種社會(huì)活動(dòng)。

2.幾種觀點(diǎn)和現(xiàn)象的提出者：

⑴瑞士語言學(xué)家F.deSaussureF.deSaussure:Langue和parole的區(qū)別

(2)U.S.AlinguistN.Chomsky美國語言學(xué)家N.Chomsky

inl950針對(duì)Saussure'slangue&parole提出Competence和performance

⑶曾經(jīng)對(duì)語言概念下過定義的語言學(xué)家

Sapir-一languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotionsand

desiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.

Hall--一languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherby

meansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.

Chomsky---fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthand

constructedoutofafinitesetofelements.

⑷U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockett美國語言學(xué)家CharlesHockett

提出了語言的識(shí)別特征designfeatures

3.theword'language'precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticular

language.

Language一詞前不加冠詞說明語言學(xué)家不只研究一種特定的語言。

4.inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodofirstif

tostudylanguagefacts.

5.languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossiblefbrthe

linguisticstodealwithitallatonce.判斷題

6.Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先引起語言學(xué)家注意

的是語言的發(fā)音。

三、問答題

1.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?

Phonetics--一ifsdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,ifsconcernedwithallthe

soundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.

Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems-theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguage

andthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.

Morphology■■-It'sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherules

bywhichwordsareformed.

Syntax------it*sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.

Semantics---Ifssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.

Pragmatics---thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.

Sociolinguistics-thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.

Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.

Appliedlinguistics-theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingand

learning.

2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?

Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeople

useandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefb匚

Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsfbrthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthe

arbitrarynatureoflanguage,ifsonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotany

innaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.

Atypicalexampletoillustratethe'arbitrariness'oflanguageis'arosebyanyothernamewouldsmell

assweef.

3.whatmakesmodemlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

Modemlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspoken

languagedate.現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)是描述性的，其研究以確實(shí)可靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。

traditionalgrammarisprescriptive,itisbasedon'high'writtenlanguage.

傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，研究，高級(jí)’書面語。

4.1smodemlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?why

Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage,unlessthevarious

statesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefroma

diachronicpointofview.

現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)主要是共時(shí)性的，重點(diǎn)研究現(xiàn)代語言。除非對(duì)語言的各種狀態(tài)都進(jìn)行成功的研究，

否則很難從歷時(shí)性角度對(duì)語言進(jìn)行描述。

5.whichenjoyspriorityinmodemlinguistics,speechorwritings?

Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:

（DSpcechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.

（2）Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.

（3）speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.

6.howisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky's?

BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactual

useoflanguage,theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy

TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksat

languagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.

6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?

（Dlangueisabstract,relativelystable（2）paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,from

situationtosituation.

1/Whatislinguistics?

什么是語言學(xué)？

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticular

language,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics

語言學(xué)的研究范疇

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（普通語言學(xué)）

Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（語音學(xué)）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系學(xué)）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.（形態(tài)

學(xué)）」「

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法學(xué)）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（語義學(xué)）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（語用學(xué)）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社會(huì)語言學(xué)）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理語言

學(xué)）

Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.

（應(yīng)用語言學(xué)）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguistic

principlesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignand

secondlanguage.

Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人類語言學(xué)）neurologicallinguistics,

（神經(jīng)語言學(xué)）mathematicallinguistics,（數(shù)字語言學(xué)）andcomputationallinguistics.（計(jì)算機(jī)

語言學(xué)）

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

語言學(xué)研究中的幾對(duì)基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive規(guī)定與描寫

Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,

ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaid

tobeprescriptive.

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodern

linguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,

whetheritis“correct“ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic共時(shí)和歷時(shí)

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofa

languageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyis

moreimportant.

Speechandwriting口頭語與書面語

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modemlinguisticsregardsthespoken

formoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.

Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespoken

languageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadof

communicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole語言和言語

TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,and

parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingle

outoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlangue

fromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthe

subjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competenceandperformance語言能力和語言運(yùn)用

ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950,s.

Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformance

theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthe

linguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

ChapterTwoPhonology

一、定義

1.寬式音標(biāo)Broadtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.

2.窄式音標(biāo)Narrowtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.

3.清音Voiceless

WhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapartJettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thc

soundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.

4.濁音Voicing

Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.

5.元音Vowel

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstream

passesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.

6.輔音Consonants

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthe

vocaltractarecalledconsonants.

7音位Phoneme

Thebasicunitinphonology,it'sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.

8.音位變體Allophones

Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophones

ofthatphoneme.

9音素phone

Aphoneticunitorsegment,itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it'saspeechsoundweuse

whenspeakingalanguage.

10.最小對(duì)立對(duì)Minimalpair

Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursin

thesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.

11.超切為特征Suprasegmental

Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures,

themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.

12.互補(bǔ)分布complementarydistributionP35

Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

13.語言的語音媒介Phonicmediumoflanguage

Thelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandarcofinterestto

linguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.

在人類交際中有著一定意義、對(duì)語言學(xué)研究來說舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語音媒介。

14.爆破音stops

Whenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwith

theobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.

theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]

二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)

1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,0001anguagesinthe

world,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.

2.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.

3.Phonetic組成

(l)Articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音語音學(xué)longestestablished,mostlydeveloped

(2)Auditoryphonetics聽覺語音學(xué)

(3)Acousticphonetics聲學(xué)語音學(xué)

4.articulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeech

Pharyngealcavity-咽腔

Oral口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhere

Nasal鼻腔

5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,the

extremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproduced

asisusedinArabicandFrench.

6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]

and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothe

sound[j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthe

sounds[t]and[d].

7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[rj]

9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.

10.Sequentialrules例子

Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobey

thefollowingthreerules:

(Dthefirstphonememustbe/s/

(2)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/

(3)thethirdphonememustbe/I/or/r/or/w

11.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone

三、問答題

1.whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?

Articulatory-describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowthey

differ.

Auditory—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthat

phoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.

Acoustic—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakerto

thehearer.

發(fā)音語音學(xué)描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語音，以及這些語音為何有所不同。

聽覺語音學(xué)研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，得出了重要結(jié)論，即語音同一只是理論上的理想。

聲學(xué)語音學(xué)研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，研究語音從說話者到聽話者之間的傳播方式。

2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?

ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation

3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemore

interestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?

語音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同?語音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個(gè)更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別?為什

么？

Phonetics-descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.

Phonology-descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctionto

distinguishmeaning.

Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcos

differencesinmeaning.

4.what,saphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?

Phone-aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.

Phoneme■一acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.

Allophones-actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.

5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetina

language?為什么區(qū)分最小對(duì)立組在一種語言中非常重要？

Minimalpair-twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthat

occursinthesameposition.

除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個(gè)語音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個(gè)語音組合.

Minimalset-agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.

一組具有上述特征的語音組合.

Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyits

phonemes.

通過分析一種語言的最小對(duì)立對(duì)或最小對(duì)立組，音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位.

6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?

Broadtranscription-onelettersymbolfbronesound.

Narrowtranscription-diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferences

betweensounds.

7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.

有序規(guī)則Sequentialrules

Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.

同化規(guī)則Assimilationrules

Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby'copying'afeatureofasequentialphoneme,

thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.

省略規(guī)則Deletionrule

Ifsaphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographically

represented.

ChapterThreeMorphology

一、定義

1.詞素Morpheme

Thebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.

2.自由詞素FreeMorpheme

Freemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.

3.黏著詞素Boundmorphemes

Boundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwith

othermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.

4.詞根Root

Rootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.

5.詞綴Affix

Thecollectivetermfbrthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanother

morpheme.

6.曲折詞綴inflectionalaffixes

Themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchas

number,tense,degreeandcase.

7.派生詞綴Derivationalaffixes

Themanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.

8.詞干Stem

Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded,astemcanbeabound

root,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.

9.形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則Morphologicalrules

Theyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.

10.前綴Prefix

Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechofthe

originalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes'be-and4en(m)-4

11.后綴Suffix

Suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmany

caseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainst

Over-generalization.

二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)

Inflectionalmorphology

1.Morphology

Derivationalmorphology

Freemorphemes

MorphemesRoot

BoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixes

Affixes

Prefix

Derivationalaffixes

2.somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix

4.Compoundfeatures:

(1)orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithouta

hypheninbetween.

(2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.

(3)semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallits

component

ChapterFourSyntax

一、定義

L句子sentence

Astructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacomplete

statement,questionorcommand.

2.語言運(yùn)用Linguisticcompetence

Thesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.

3.謂語Predicate

Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingabout

thesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.

4.定式子句FiniteClause

Aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.

5.從屬子句EmbeddedClause(EC)

Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnonnallycalledanEC.

6.主要子句MatrixClause

Inacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.

7.層次結(jié)構(gòu)Hierarchicalstructure

Thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntactic

categoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.

8.語法關(guān)系Grammaticalrelations

Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.

9.句法類型Syntacticcategory

Awordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.

■.表層結(jié)向S-structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement

11.深層結(jié)構(gòu)D?structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.

12.普遍語法Generalgrammar

Asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersabout

naturelanguage.

13.移動(dòng)a規(guī)則Movea

Ageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.

14.句法移位Syntacticmovement

Syntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.

15.轉(zhuǎn)換原則Transformationrules

Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whoseoperation

maychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.

16.X標(biāo)桿理論X-bartheory

Ageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoasingle

format:X“一(Spec)X(Compl).

一種泛指的、高度抽象的圖示，它把所有的詞組結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則概括為一種程式

X”一(Spec)X(Compl)

a:X"b:X"SpecX'

SpecX'X'Xcompl

Xcomplement

NP'thestudentwholikeslinguistics,consistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,Nthe

head,Sthecomplement.NP(...)有冠詞、名詞和子句組成，冠詞是指示語，名詞是核心詞，子句

是補(bǔ)足語。

二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)

1.syntax這個(gè)單詞源于Greek,本義是arrangement.

2.我們把syntax的學(xué)習(xí)看作asystemofrulesthatgoverntheformationofgrammaticalsentence.

3.Amajorgoaloflinguisticsistoshowwithaconsistentandexplicitgrammaticaltheoryhow

syntacticrulesaccountforthisgrammaticalknowledge.

4.判斷題：thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothe

numberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguagearcabletoproduceandcomprehend.

5.半斷題:Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionor

occurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.

一個(gè)限定動(dòng)詞被非正式稱為句中主要?jiǎng)釉~，表達(dá)了人稱、數(shù)、時(shí)態(tài)、語氣限定的存在、行動(dòng)或

事件。

6.句子的分類simplesentence

Typesofsentencescoordinateorcompoundsentence

Complexsentence

簡(jiǎn)單句■■-Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasits

ownsentence.

并歹峋合成句-Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,such

as“but",''and",ect.

復(fù)合句一Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.

復(fù)合句的特點(diǎn)：

(DAnembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause

(2)MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas"that”

(3)Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstands

independentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.

子句是一個(gè)語法單位，大部分子句要帶一個(gè)被稱為從屬連詞的引導(dǎo)詞，如果子句作為秒年第

秒年句單獨(dú)存在，它可能不是一個(gè)合乎規(guī)范的句子，除非改變他的形式。

7.whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranother

inasequence.

8.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子結(jié)構(gòu)層次特點(diǎn)

sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPorverb

phraseVP,groupedtogether.

9.ThepointsatwhichthetreebrachesatvariouslevelsarecalledBranchingnodes分叉點(diǎn)

lO.lnadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructureof

sentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.

11.句法類型

M用or…主要詞類open,canaddnewwords

Lexicalcategory名、動(dòng)、形、副詞N,V,Adj,Adv

SyntacticMinor...次要詞類close,wordsarefixed

Categories限定、助動(dòng)、介、代、連、嘆Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj』nt

Phrasalcategory

Apartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexical

category)oraphrase(calledphrasalcategory)thatperfbnnsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchas

thesubjectinasentence.

12.短語類型

NounPhraseNP

PhrasalVerbPhraseVP

CategoriesPrepositionPhrasePP

AdjectivePhraseAP

13.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachmounphraseinthesentencerelates

totheverb,inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto'who'does'what'to'whom'.

14.weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof.

15.Combinationalrulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehuman

memory,alsotheserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleoutthe

impossibleones

組合規(guī)則一定不能太多，以免給人的記憶帶來過多的負(fù)擔(dān)，用這些規(guī)則必須能組合出所有可能

的句子，而排除不可能的句子。

16.rulesangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheir

recursiveproperties.Itcapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceand

enablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.

循環(huán)性體現(xiàn)了語言中的句子能有更多的成分，使說話者能在同一句子中重復(fù)一些句法成分。

17.移位類型

SyntacticNP-movement=t'sinvolvingthemovementofanounphrase.

Movement名詞短語的移位

WH-movement=Itchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.

陳述變疑問句

AUX-...=themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentenceinitialposition.

助動(dòng)詞移位到句首的移位

18.普遍語法的廣義原則

GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition/口AdjacencyCondition

格條彳牛---anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,orby

AUXtothesubjectposition.

名詞詞組必須有格，賓語的格是由動(dòng)詞或介詞決定，而主語的格由助動(dòng)詞決定。

相鄰條件一acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhyno

otherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.

格分派者和格接受者要相鄰。這解釋了為什么任何別的詞組類不能插到動(dòng)詞和它的直接賓語之

間。

19.Universa!Grammarisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalves增and減setonthe

Adjacencycondition.withEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe增value,

whileforFrench-typelanguage,theparameterissetto減value.

三、問答題

1.Usetheappropriatephrasestructurerulestodrawalabeledconstituentstructuretreediagramfor

eachofthefollowingsentences.

(Dthetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind

(2)MarypromisedJohntoseethedoctor.

Chapter5Semantics

一、定義

1.命名論Thenam