醫(yī)學(xué)心理學(xué)課件英文版

Psychology

BriefContentsThescienceofpsychologyThebiologicalbasisofbehaviorSensationandperceptionStatesofconsciousnessLearningCognitionandmentalabilitiesMotivationandemotionBriefContentsLife-spandevelopmentPersonalityStressandhealthpsychologyPsychologicaldisordersTherapiesSocialpsychologyTHESCIENCEOFPSYCHOLOGY

Whatispsychology?Psychology:Thescientificstudyofbehaviorandmentalprocesses.Psychologyencompasseseveryaspectofhumanthoughts,feelingsandactions.ThefieldsofpsychologyDevelopmentalpsychologyPhysiologicalpsychologyExperimentalpsychologyPersonalitypsychologyClinicalandcounselingpsychologySocialpsychologyIndustrialandorganizationalpsychologyDevelopmentalpsychologyDevelopmentalpsychologistsstudyallaspectsofhumangrowthandchange-physical,mental,social,andemotional-fromtheprenatalperiodthrougholdage.PhysiologicalpsychologyPhysiologicalpsychologistsinvestigatethebiologicalbasisofhumanbehavior,thoughts,andemotions.ExperimentalpsychologyExperimentalpsychologistsconductresearchonbasicpsychologicalprocesses,includinglearning,memory,sensation,perception,thinking,motivation,andemotion.PersonalitypsychologyPersonalitypsychologistsstudythedifferencesamongindividualsinsuchtraitsassociability,conscientiousness,emotionalstability,self-esteem,agreeableness,aggressiveinclinations,andopennesstonewexperiences.ClinicalandcounselingpsychologyClinicalpsychologistsareinterestedinthediagnosis,causes,andtreatmentofpsychologicaldisorders.Counselingpsychologistsareconcernedwiththe“normal”everydayproblemsofadjustmentthatmostofusfaceatsomepointinlife.SocialpsychologySocialpsychologistinvestigatesuchissuesasinterpersonalattraction,persuasivecommunicationsandattitudeformation,obediencetoauthority,conformitytogroupnorms,andhowpeopleoftenbehavedifferentlyincrowds.Industrialandorganizationalpsychology

I/Opsychologistsapplytheprinciplesofpsychologytotheworkplace.Theyareconcernedwithsuchpracticalissuesasselectingandtrainingpersonnel,improvingproductivityandworkingconditions,andtheimpactofcomputerizationandautomationonworkers.PsychologyasscienceScientificmethodisanapproachtoknowledgethatreliesoncollectingdata,generatingatheorytoexplainthedata,producingtestablehypothesesbasedonthetheory,andtestingthosehypothesesempirically.Thegrowthofpsychology“Psychologyhasalongpast,butashorthistory.”Threestages:1.Theemergenceofascienceofthemind2.Thebehavioristdecades3.ThecognitiverevolutionThenewpsychology:AscienceofthemindMostpsychologistsagreethatpsychologywasbornin1879,theyearthatWilhelmWundtfoundedthefirstpsychologicallaboratoryattheUniversityofLeipziginGermany.Redefiningpsychology:ThestudyofbehaviorJohnB.Watson:BehaviorismB.F.Skinner:BehaviorismrevisitedThecognitiverevolutionTheprecursors:GestaltandHumanisticpsychologyTheriseofcognitivepsychologyNewdirectionEvolutionarypsychologyPositivepsychologyMultipleperspectivesofpsychologytodayResearchmethodsinpsychologyNaturalisticobservationCasestudiesSurveysCorrelationalresearchExperimentalresearchTheimportanceofsampling

NaturalisticobservationResearchmethodinvolvingthesystematicstudyofanimalorhumanbehaviorinnaturalsettingsratherthaninthelaboratory.NaturalisticobservationObserverbias:Expectationsorbiasesoftheobserverthatmightdistortorinfluencehisorherinterpretationofwhatwasactuallyobserved.CasestudiesIntensivedescriptionandanalysisofasingleindividualorjustafewindividuals.SurveysResearchtechniquesinwhichquestionnairesorinterviewsareadministeredtoaselectedgroupofpeople.CorrelationalresearchResearchtechniquebasedonthenaturallyoccurringrelationshipbetweentwoormorevariables.ExperimentalresearchResearchtechniqueinwhichaninvestigatordeliberatelymanipulatesselectedeventsorcircumstancesandthenmeasurestheeffectsofthosemanipulationsonsubsequentbehavior.ExperimentalresearchIndependentvariableDependentvariableExperimentalgroupControlgroupIndependentvariableInaexperiment,thevariablethatismanipulatedtotestitseffectsontheothers,dependentvariables.DependentvariableInaexperiment,thevariablethatismeasuredtoseehowitischangedbymanipulationsintheindependentvariable.ExperimentalgroupInacontrolledexperiment,thegroupsubjectedtoachangeintheindependentvariable.ControlgroupInacontrolledexperiment,thegroupnotsubjectedtoachangeintheindependentvariable;usedforcomparisonwiththeexperimentalgroup.ExperimenterbiasExpectationsbytheexperimenterthatmightinfluencetheresultsofanexperimentoritsinterpretation.contentsNeuronsThecentralnervoussystemTheperipheralnervoussystemneuronNeurons:themessengersNeurons:individualcellsthatarethesmallestunitofthenervoussystem.Dendrites:shortfibersthatbranchoutfromthecellbodyandpickupincomingmessages.Axon:singlelongfiberextendingfromthecellbody;itcarriesoutgoingmessages.Neurons:themessengersNerve:groupofaxonbundledtogether.Myelinsheath:whitefattycoveringfoundonsomeaxons.TypesofneuronsSensoryneurons:neuronsthatcarrymessagesfromsenseorganstothespinalcordorbrain.Motorneurons:neuronsthatcarrymessagesfromthespinalorbraintothemusclesandglands.Interneurons:neuronsthatcarrymessagesfromoneneurontoanother.MotorneuronsTypesofneuronsThesynapseSynapse:areacomposedoftheaxonterminalofoneneuron,thesynapticspace,andthedendriteorcellbodyofthenextneuron.Neurotransmitters:chemicalsreleasedbythesynapticvesiclesthattravelacrossthesynapticspaceandaffectadjacentneurons.Synapticvesicles:tinysacsinaterminalbuttonthatreleasechemicalsintothesynapse.ThesynapseThesynapseThecentralnervoussystemCNS:divisionofthenervoussystemthatconsistsofthebrainandspinalcord.ThehindbrainAreathatcontainingthemedulla,pons,andcerebellum.Forebrain/Midbrain/HindbrainCerebralcortexFrontallobe:partofcerebralcortexthatisresponsibleforvoluntarymovement;itisalsoimportantforattention,goal-directedbehavior,andappropriateemotionalexperiences.ThefourlobesofthecerebralcortexOccipitallobe:partofthecerebralhemispherethatreceivesandinterpretsvisualinformation.Parietallobe:partofthecerebralcortexthatreceivessensoryinformationfromthroughoutthebody.Temporallobe:partofthecerebralhemispherethathelpsregulatehearing,balanceandequilibrium,andcertainemotionsandmotivations.ThefourlobesofthecerebralcortexTheperipheralnervoussystem(PNS)Somaticnervoussystem:thepartofthePNSthatcarriesmessagesfromthesensestotheCNSandbetweentheCNSandtheskeletalmuscles.Autonomicnervoussystem:thepartofthePNSthatcarriesmessagesbetweentheCNSandtheinternalorgans.TheautonomicnervoussystemSympatheticdivision:branchoftheautonomicnervoussystem;itpreparesthebodyforquickactioninanemergency.Parasympatheticdivision:branchoftheautonomicnervoussystem;itcalmsandrelaxesthebody.BriefContentsSensationPerceptionThenatureofsensationSensation:thebasicexperienceofstimulatingthebody’ssense.

Absolutethreshold:theleastamountofenergythatcanbedetectedasastimulation50percentofthetime.

AbsolutethresholdHearing:thetickofawatchfrom6metersinveryquietconditionsVision:acandleflameseenfrom50kilometersonaclear,darknightTaste:1gramoftablesaltin500litersofwaterSmell:onedropofperfumediffusedthroughoutathree-roomapartmentTouch:thewingofabeefallingonthecheckfromaheightof1centimeter

ThenatureofsensationAdaptation:anadjustmentofthesensestothelevelofstimulationtheyarereceived.Differencethresholdorjust-noticeabledifference(jnd):thesmallestchangeinstimulationthatcanbedetected50percentofthetime.Weber’law:theprinciplethatthejndforanygivensenseisaconstantfractionorproportionofthestimulationbeingjudged.

PerceptionPerception:thebrain’sinterpretationofsensoryinformationsoastogiveitmeaning.Perception:AnopticalillusionPerception:AnopticalillusionPerception:Anopticalillusion

Perceptualorganization:Randomdotsorsomethingmore?

ThereversiblefigureandgroundThereversiblefigureandgroundThereversiblefigureandgroundFigure-groundrelationshipSomeprinciplesofperceptualorganization

ProximitySimilarityClosureContinuityProximityProximitySimilarityClosureContinuityPerceptualconstancyPerceptualconstancyreferstothetendencytoperceiveobjectsasrelativelystableandunchangingdespitechangingsensoryinformation.PerceptualconstancySizeconstancyShapeconstancyColorconstancyBrightconstancySizeconstancyTheperceptionofanobjectasthesamesizeregardlessofthedistancefromitisviewed.ShapeconstancyAtendencytoseeanobjectasthesameshapenomatterwhatangleitisviewedfrom.ShapeconstancyColorconstancyAninclinationtoperceivefamiliarobjectsasretainingtheircolordespitechangesinsensoryinformation.BrightnessconstancyTheperceptionofbrightnessasthesame,eventhoughtheamountoflightreachingtheretinachanges.Perceptionofdistanceanddepth

superposition:Perceptionofdistanceanddepth

elevationasavisualcue:Perceptionofdistanceanddepth

shadowing:Visualillusion:reversiblefigureVisualillusion:

misleadingdepthcuesVisualillusion:

misleadingdepthcuescontentsConsciousexperienceSleepDreamsMeditationandhypnosisConsciousexperience*Consciousness:Ourawarenessofvariouscognitiveprocesses,suchassleeping,dreaming,concentrating,andmakingdecisions.Wakingconsciousness:mentalstatethatencompassesthethoughts,feelings,andperceptionsthatoccurwhenweareawakeandreasonablyalert.DaydreamingDaydreams:apparentlyeffortlessshiftsinattentionawayfromthehereandnowintoaprivateworldofmakebelieve.SleepDreamsDreams:vividvisualandauditoryexperiencesthatoccurprimarilyduringREMperiodsofsleep.Whydowedream?DreamsasunconsciouswishesDreamsandinformationprocessingDreamandwakinglifeDreamsandneuralactivityMeditationandhypnosisMeditation:anyofthevariousmethodsofconcentration,reflection,orfocusingofthoughtsundertakentosuppresstheactivityofthesympatheticnervoussystem.Meditationandhypnosis*Hypnosis:trancelikestateinwhichapersonrespondsreadilytosuggestions.CopingwithoccasionalinsomniaMaintainregularbedtimehours;don’tsleeplateonweekends.Establisharegularbedtimeroutinethatyoufolloweachnightbeforeretiring,suchasawarmbath,followedbyalittlereadingorwritingaletter.CopingwithoccasionalinsomniaAbstainfromdrugs.Adjustthetemperatureoftheroomifitistoocoldortoowarm.Avoidfoodsthatmaycausesleeplessness.Establisharegularexerciseprogramduringtheday.contentsThesensoryregistersShorttermmemoryLongtermmemoryforgettingThesensoryregisters*Memory:theabilitytorememberthethingsthatwehaveexperienced,imagined,andlearned.Information-processingmodel:acomputerlikemodelusedtodescribethewayhumansencode,store,andretrieveinformation.Information-processingmodelThesensoryregistersSensoryregisters:entrypointsforrawinformationfromthesenses.Attention:theselectionofsomeincominginformationforfurtherprocessing.Short-termmemory(STM)*Short-termmemory(STM):Workingmemory;brieflystoresandprocessesselectedinformationfromthesensoryregisters.PrimarytasksStorenewinformationWorkonthenewinformationCapacityofSTMCXWMNKTYRPJHBZSGBMPVQFJDEGQWJPBRHKACapacityofSTM*Chunking:thegroupingofinformationintomeaningfulunitsforeasierhandlingbyshort-termmemory.EncodinginSTMWeencodeverbalinformationforstorageinSTMphonological—thatis,accordingtohowitsounds.Somematerialisstoredinvisualform,andotherinformationisretainedonthebasisofitsmeaning.MaintainingSTMRoterehearsal:retaininginformationinmemorysimplybyrepeatingitoverandover.Long-termmemoryLong-termmemory(LTM):Theportionofmemorythatismoreorlesspermanent,correspondingtoeverythingwe“know.”CapacityofLTMLong-termmemorycanstoreavastamountofinformationformanyyears.EncodinginLTMSomeLTMmemoriesarecodesintermsofnonverbalimages:shapes,sounds,smells,tastes,andsoon.MostoftheinformationinLTMseemstobeencodedintermsofmeaning.*SerialpositioneffectSerialpositioneffect:Thefindingthatwhenaskedtorecallalistofunrelateditems,performanceisbetterfortheitemsatthebeginningandendofthelist.*TherecencyeffectTherecencyeffectoccursbecausethelastitemsthatarepresentedarestillcontainedinSTMandthusareavailabletorecall.*TheprimacyeffectTheprimacyeffectreflectstheopportunitytorehearsethefirstfewitemsinthelist---increasingtheirlikelihoodofbeingtransferredtoLTM.MaintainingLTMRoterehearsalElaborativerehearsal:ThelinkingofnewinformationinSTMtofamiliarmaterialstoredinLTM.Mnemonics:Techniquesthatmakematerialeasiertoremember.Schema:Asetofbeliefsorexpectationsaboutsomethingthatisbasedonpastexperience.ImprovingyourmemoryDevelopmotivationPracticememoryskillsBeconfidentinyourabilitytorememberMinimizedistractionsStayfocusedUsementalimageryImprovingyourmemoryMakeconnectionsbetweennewmaterialandotherinformationalreadystoredinyourLTMUseretrievalcuesRelyonmorethanmemoryaloneBeawarethatyourownpersonalschematamaydistortyourrecallofevents*TypesofLTMEpisodicmemory:theportionofLTMthatstorespersonallyexperiencedevents.Semanticmemory:theportionofLTMthatstoresgeneralfactsandinformation.Proceduralmemory:theportionofLTMthatstoresinformationrelatingtoskills,habits,andotherperceptual-motortasks.Emotionalmemory:learnedemotionalresponsestovariousstimuli.ExplicitandimplicitmemoryExplicitmemory:memoryforinformationthatwecanreadilyexpressinwordsandareawareofhaving;thesememoriescanbeintentionallyretrievedfrommemory.Implicitmemory:memoryforinformationthatwecannotreadilyexpressinwordsandmaynotbeawareofhaving;thesememoriescannotbeintentionallyretrievedfrommemory.Forgetting*Decaytheory:Atheorythatarguesthatthepassageoftimecausesforgetting.Retrogradeamnesia:Theabilitytorecalleventsprecedinganaccidentorinjury,butwithoutlossofearliermemory.contentsClassicalconditioningOperantconditioningCognitivelearningClassicallearning*Learning:theprocessbywhichexperienceorpracticeresultsinarelativelypermanentchangeinbehaviororpotentialbehavior.Classicallearning*Classicalconditioning:thetypeoflearninginwhicharesponsenaturallyelicitedbyonestimuluscomestobeelicitedbyadifferent,formerlyneutralstimulus.Classicallearning*Unconditionedstimulus(US):Astimulusthatinvariablycausesanorganismtorespondinaspecificway.*Unconditionedresponse(UR):A responsethattakesplaceinanorganismwheneveranunconditionedstimulusoccurs.Classicallearning*Conditionedstimulus(CS):Anoriginallyneutralstimulusthatispairedwithanunconditionedstimulusandeventuallyproducesthedesiredresponseinanorganismwhenpresentedalone.*Conditionedresponse(CR):Afterconditioning,theresponseanorganismproduceswhenaconditionedstimulusispresented.Pavlov’sapparatusforclassicallyconditioningadogtosalivateOperantconditioningOperantconditioning:thetypeoflearninginwhichbehaviorsareemittedtoearnrewardsoravoidpunishments.Operantbehavior:behaviordesignedtooperantontheenvironmentinawaythatwillgainsomethingdesiredoravoidsomethingunpleasant.OperantconditioningReinforcer:astimulusthatfollowsabehaviorandincreasesthelikelihoodthatthebehaviorwillberepeated.Punisher:astimulusthatfollowsabehavioranddecreasesthelikelihoodthatthebehaviorwillberepeated.OperantconditioningLawofeffect:Thorndike’stheorythatbehaviorconsistentlyrewardedwillbe“stampedin”aslearnedbehavior,andbehaviorthatbringsaboutdiscomfortwillbe“stampedout.”SkinnerboxAboxoftenusedinoperantconditioningofanimals;itlimitstheavailableresponsesandthusincreasesthelikelihoodthatthedesiredresponsewilloccur.()Operantconditioning*Shaping:reinforcingsuccessiveapproximationstoadesiredbehavior.Positivereinforcer:anyeventwhosepresenceincreasesthelikelihoodthatongoingbehaviorwillrecur.Negativereinforcer:anyeventwhosereductionorterminationincreacesthelikelihoodthatongoingbehaviorwillrecur.OperantconditioningLearnedhelplessness:failuretotakestepstoavoidorescapefromanunpleasantoraversivestimulusthatoccursasaresultofpreviousexposuretounavoidablepainfulstimuli.ExtinctionExtinction:adecreaseinthestrengthorfrequency,orstopping,ofalearnedresponsebecauseoffailuretocontinueparingtheUSandCSorwithholdingofreinforcement.SpontaneousrecoverySpontaneousrecovery:thereappearanceofanextinguishedresponseafterthepassageoftime,withouttraining.Stimulusgeneralization*Stimulusgeneralization:thetransferofalearnedresponsetodifferentbutsimilarstimuli.Stimulusdiscrimination*Stimulusdiscrimination:learningtorespondtoonlyonestimulusandtoinhibittheresponsetoallotherstimuli.ResponsegeneralizationGivingaresponsethatissomewhatdifferentfromtheresponseoriginallylearnedtothatstimulus.Primaryreinforcer*Primaryreinforcer:areinforcerthatisrewardinginitself,suchasfood,water,andsex.Secondaryreinforcer*Secondaryreinforcer:areinforcerwhosevalueisacquiredthroughassociationwithotherprimaryorsecondaryreinforcers.Cognitivelearning*Cognitivelearning:learningthatdependsonmentalprocessesthatarenotdirectlyobservable.LatentlearningLatentlearning:learningthatisnotimmediatelyreflectedinabehaviorchange.CognitivemapCognitivemap:alearnedmentalimageofaspatialenvironmentthatmaybecalledontosolveproblemswhenstimuliintheenvironmentchange.ObservationallearningObservationallearning:learningbyobservingotherpeople’sbehavior.contentsThoughtProblemsolvingDecisionmakingIntelligenceBuildingblocksofthoughtLanguageImagesconceptsLanguageLanguage:Aflexiblesystemofcommunicationthatusessounds,rules,gestures,orsymbolstoconveyinformation.LanguagePhonemes:thebasicsoundsthatmakeupanylanguage.Morphemes:thesmallestmeaningfulunitsofspeech,suchassimplewords,prefixes,andsuffixes.Grammar:thelanguagerulesthatdeterminehowsoundsandwordscanbecombinedandusedtocommunicatemeaningwithinalanguage.ImagesandconceptsImages:Amentalrepresentationofasensoryexperience.Concepts:Amentalcategoryforclassifyingobjects,people,orexperiences.ProblemsolvingProblemrepresentation:thefirststepinsolvingaproblem;itinvolvesinterpretingordefiningtheproblems.DivergentandconvergentthinkingDivergentthinking:Thinkingthatmeetsthecriteriaoforiginality,inventiveness,andflexibility.Convergentthinking:Thinkingthatisdirectedtowardonecorrectsolutiontoaproblem.ObstaclestosolvingproblemsMentalset:Thetendencytoperceiveandtoapproachproblemsincertainways.Functionalfixedness:Thetendencytoperceiveonlyalimitednumberofusesforanobject,thusinterferingwiththeprocessofproblemsolving.TwoproblemsCompensatorymodel:Arationaldecision-makingmodelinwhichchoicesaresystematicallyevaluatedonvariouscriteria.DecisionmakingDecision-makingheuristicRepresentiveness:Aheuristicbywhichanewsituationisjudgedonthebasisofitsresemblancetoastereotypicalmodel.Availability:Aheuristicbywhichajudgmentordecisionisbasedoninformationthatismosteasilyretrievedfrommemory.Confirmationbias:thetendencytolookforevidenceinsupportofabeliefandtoignoreevidencethatwoulddisproveabelief.IntelligenceIntelligence:ageneraltermreferringtotheabilityorabilitiesinvolvedinlearningandadaptivebehavior.TheoriesofintelligenceTriarchictheoryofintelligence:Sternberg’stheorythatintelligenceinvolvesmentalskills,insightandcreativeadaptability,andenvironmentalresponsiveness.TheoriesofintelligenceTheoryofmultipleintelligence:HowardGardner’stheorythatthereisnotoneintelligence,butrathermanyintelligences,eachofwhichisrelativelyindependentoftheothers.TheStanford-Binet

IntelligenceScaleThefirsttestdevelopedtomeasureintelligencewasdesignedbytwoFrenchmen,AlfredBinetandTheodoreSimon.Thetest,firstusedinParisin1905,wasdesignedtoidentifychildrenwhomighthavedifficultyinschool.TheStanford-Binet

IntelligenceScaleThefirstBinet-SimonScaleconsistedof30testsarrangedinorderofincreasingdifficulty.Witheachchild,theexaminerstartedwiththeearliesttestsandworkeddownthetestuntilthechildcouldnotlongeranswerquestions.MentalageAchildwhoscoresaswellasanaverage4-year-oldhasamentalageof4.Achildwhoscoresaswellasanaverage12-year-oldhasamentalageof12.IntelligencetestsIntelligencequotient:anumericalvaluegiventointelligencethatisdeterminedfromthescoresonanintelligencetestonthebasisofascoreof100foraverageintelligence.Stanford-BinetIntelligenceScaleThecurrentoneisdesignedtomeasurefourkindsofmentalabilities:Verbalreasoning;abstract/visualreasoning,quantitativereasoning,andshort-termmemory.Testitemsvarywiththesubjectsage.Stanford-BinetIntelligenceScaleA3-year-oldmightbeaskedtodescribethepurposeofacupandtonameobjectssuchasachairandakey.A6-year-oldmightbeaskedtodefinewordssuchasorangeandenvelopeandcompleteasentencesuchas“Aninchisshort;amileis__.”A12-year-oldmightbeaskedtodefineskillandjugglerandtocompletethesentence“thestreamsaredry___therehasbeenlittlerain”WelchslerAdultIntelligence

Scale-ThirdEdition(WAIS-III)Anindividualintelligencetestdevelopedespeciallyforadults;measuresbothverbalandperformanceabilities.TheWAISwasdevelopedinthelate1930sbyDavidWelchsler.WelchslerAdultIntelligence

Scale-ThirdEdition(WAIS-III)TheWAIS-IIIisdividedintotwoparts,onestressingverbalskills,theotherperformanceskills.VerbalskillsTheverbalscaleincludestestsofinformation(WhowroteParadiseLost?);testsofsimplearithmetic(Samhadthreepiecesofcandy,andJoegavehimfourmore.HowmanypiecesofcandydidSamhavethen?)Testsofcomprehension(Whatshouldyoudoifyouseesomeoneforgetabookonabus?)PerformanceskillsTheperformancescalealsomeasuresroutinetasks.Peopleareasked“findthemissingpart”,tocopypatterns,andtoarrangethreetofivepicturessothattheytellastory.WechslerIntelligenceScaleforChildren-ThirdEdition(WISC-III)Anindividualintelligencetestdevelopedespeciallyforschool-agedchildren;measuresverbalandperformanceabilitiesandalsoyieldsanoverallIQscore.OverviewPersonalityPsychodynamictheoriesHumanisticpersonalitytheoriesPersonalityassessmentPersonalityAnindividual’suniquepatternofthoughts,feelings,andbehaviorsthatpersistsovertimeandacrosssituations.PsychodynamictheoriesPersonalitytheoriescontendingthatbehaviorresultsfrompsychologicalforcesthatinteractwithintheindividual,oftenoutsideconsciousawareness.UnconscioustheoryConsciousFreud’sfirstlevelofawareness,consistingofthethoughts,feelings,andactionsofwhichpeopleareaware.PreconsciousFreud’ssecondlevelofawareness,consistingofthementalactivitiesofwhichpeoplegainawarenessbyattendingtothem.UnconsciousFreud’sthirdlevelofawareness,consistingofthementalactivitiesbeyondpeople’snormalawareness.PersonalitystructureId:InFreud’stheoryofpersonality,thecollectionofunconsciousurgesanddesiresthatcontinuallyseekexpression.Pleasureprinciple:AccordingtoFreud,thewayinwhichtheidseeksimmediategratificationofaninstinct.PersonalitystructureEgo:Freud’stermforthepartofthepersonalitythatmediatesbetweenenvironmentaldemands,conscious,andinstinctualneed;nowoftenusedasasynonymforself.Realityprinciple:AccordingtoFreud,thewayinwhichtheegoseekstosatisfyinstinctualdemandssafelyandeffectivelyintherealworld.PersonalitystructureSuperego:AccordingtoFreud,thesocialandparentalstandardstheindividualhasinternalized;theconsciousandtheegoideal.Egoideal:Thepartofthesuperegothatconsistsofstandardsofwhatonewouldliketobe.PersonalitystructureHowpersonalitydevelopsLibido:AccordingtoFreud,theenergygeneratedbysexualinstinct.Fixation:AccordingtoFreud,apartialorcompletehaltatsomepointintheindividual’spsychosexualdevelopment.HowpersonalitydevelopsOralstage:FirststageinFreud’stheoryofpersonalitydevelopment,inwhichtheinfant’seroticfeelingscenteronthemouth,lips,andtongue.Analstage:SecondstageinFreud’stheoryofpersonalitydevelopment,inwhichachild’seroticfeelingscenterontheanusandonelimination.HowpersonalitydevelopsPhallicstage:ThirdstageinFreud’stheoryofpersonalitydevelopment,inwhicheroticfeelingscenteronthegenitals.OedipuscomplexandElectracomplex:AccordingtoFreud,achild’ssexualattachmenttotheparentoftheoppositesexandjealousytowardtheparentofthesamesex;generallyoccursinthephallicstage.HowpersonalitydevelopsLatencyperiod:InFreud’stheoryofpersonal