語言學-discourse-analysis教學課件

Chapter7DiscourseAnalysis

語篇分析語言學-discourse-analysisMajorcontents

1.Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2.Informationstructure3.Cohesionandcoherence4.Discoursemarkers5.Conversationalanalysis6.Criticalanalysis語言學-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseLanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause.(Stubbs,1983:1)Textlinguistics/discourseanalysiswrittenspokenUsedinterchangeablynow語言學-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseanalysisDiscourselinguistics/discoursestudies/textanalysisThestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.p168語言學-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisLanguageinusePragmatics:meaningDiscourseanalysis:informationstructureMostpowerfulinstrument:FunctionalSystemicGrammar語言學-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisFertilizersputbackwhattherainandplantstakeaway.Plasticpotsarenotjustsubstitutesforclayones.Pearsarealittlemoretemperamentalthanapples.Supportingandtrainingarenotquitethesamething.

×語言學-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisPickupahandfulofsoilinyourgarden.Ordinary,unexcitingearth.YetitisoneofNature’smiracles,andoneofhermostcomplexproducts.Yoursuccessasagardenerwilllargelydependuponitscondition,sotakethefirstboldstepingardening---gettoknowyoursoil.

√語言學-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisAprimarytask

ofDAistoexplorethelinguisticfeatureswhichcharacterizediscourse.ThegoalofDAistoexaminehowreaderoruserofadiscourserecognizesthatpartsofadiscoursearedependentonothers.Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdiscourseiscohesion(銜接)語言學-discourse-analysis1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisTopicsofDA:Informationstructure(信息結(jié)構)Cohesion(銜接)Coherence(連貫)Discoursemakers(話語標記語)Conversationalanalysis(會話分析)語言學-discourse-analysis2InformationStructureHowdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse?2.1GivenandnewinformationAlice:Whoatethebread?Tom:Maryatethebread.Giveninformation:knowntotheaddresseeNewinformation:unknowntotheaddressee.語言學-discourse-analysis2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationcanbeintroducedbyonespeakeralone:Amancalledwhileyouwereonyourbreak.Hesaidhe’dcallbacklater.Giveninformationcanbesomethingcloselyrelatedtothementionedinformation(e.g.meronymy)（部分-整體關系）Kentreturnedmycarlastnightafterborrowingitfortheday.Oneofthewheelswasabouttofalloffandthedashboardwasmissing.語言學-discourse-analysis2.1GivenandnewinformationFormsofN/Ginformation:New-informationcarriersusuallyreceivemorestress,andtheyarecommonlymoreelaborated,e.g.withafullnounphrase,relativeclauseoradjectivalmodifier(s).E.g.WhenIenteredtheroom,therewasatallmanwithanold-fashionedhaton,quiteelegantlydressed.語言學-discourse-analysis2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationisexpressedinshorterforms(pronouns/unstressednounphrase/omitted):A:Whoatetheapple?B:Marydid./Mary.語言學-discourse-analysis2.2Topicandcomment

話題和述題Topic話題:whattheutteranceisabout.Comment述題:whatissaidaboutthetopic.Topicistheelementofasentencethatfunctionsasthecenterofattention.Topicisusuallythesubject,nounphrase.Maryatethebread.語言學-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentOtherelementscantaketheroletoo.Aftertea,willyoutellmeastory.MarkthetopicPlacetopicintheinitialpositioninEnglish.Abeautifuldressshedidmake.Topicisnotnecessarilyapropertyofthesentence;itmaybeapropertyofthediscoursecontext:Oh,look!語言學-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.given-newinformationGiven-newinformation:thepointofviewofthelistener.Topic-commentrelatestothatofthespeaker.Thegivenelementisthatwhichthespeakerpresentsasalreadybeingknowntothelistener.Thetopicelementrepresentswhattheutteranceisabout.語言學-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentGiveninformationisnotalwaysthetopic.Maryatethebread.Asforherlittlesister,shedranktheCoca-Cola.

new/topic

Peterdidn’tbelieveanythingthecharlatansaid.AsforMary,shebelievedeverythinghesaid.

given/comment語言學-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.rheme-themeRheme-theme:sentenceTopic-comment:discourseRheme-theme:concretesentencestructure(linguisticform)Topic-comment:abstractinformationstructureMike'shousewassocomfortableandwarm!Hereallydidn'twanttoleave,buthecouldn'taffordtherent,youknow.Andithadsuchanicegardenintheback!語言學-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentTopicsarenotsoimportanttothegrammarofEnglish.ThereisonlyonegrammaticalstructurewhichmarkstopicsinEnglish.Asforme,I’mgonnagotobed.Otherlanguageshavespecialformstomarkthetopic(Japanese,Korean)Chinesemarkstopicsbywordorder:作業(yè)終于做完了！語言學-discourse-analysis2.2TopicandcommentInEnglish,markingthetopicofasentenceisfarlessimportantthanmarkingthesubject.Therearespecialformstoindicatethesubject:Shelooksathim.語言學-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast對比Contrast:anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse.contrastiveA:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,Johndid.B:Yes,Tomsawtheghost.語言學-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast對比Oneoutstandingfromalliscontrastedwiththewhole:Ofeveryonepresent,onlyPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Adeleknewwhatwasgoingon,andPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Contrastisalsomarkedinsentencesthatexpressthenarrowingdownofachoicefromseveralcandidatestoone.語言學-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast對比Testforcontrast:Ifanounphrasecanbefollowedby“ratherthan”,itiscontrastive:A:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,John,ratherthanTom,sawtheghost.B:No,Tomseetheangle,ratherthan

theghost.語言學-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast對比Asinglesentencecanhaveseveralcontrastivenounphrases:A:DidTomseeaghost?B:Yes,Tomsawaghost,butJohnsawanentirecastofspirits.Contrastisobservedfromthediscoursecontextorsituationalcontext.MarylikesgoingtoMaineduringthewinter.語言學-discourse-analysis2.3Contrast對比Employee:CanIleaveearlytoday?Manager:Idon’tmind.InEnglish,contrastivenounphrasecanbemarkedbypronouncingitwithstrongstress:Youmaybesmart,buthe’sgood-looking.語言學-discourse-analysis3.CohesionandCoherence

銜接&連貫Howsentencesarecombinetoformtexts?It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Whichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuildtoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.語言學-discourse-analysis3.CohesionandCoherenceWhichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuilttoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.語言學-discourse-analysis3.CohesionandCoherence3.1Cohesion銜接Thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelements(sentencesorsegments)ofadiscourse.Cohesivedevices銜接手段Acoherentdiscoursehascertainwordsandexpressionsinitwhichlinkthesentencestogether.Reference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.語言學-discourse-analysis3.1CohesionAcoherentdiscoursearesentenceslinkedclosely.A:IsJanehere?B:No,sheisn’t.Youcanleadahorsetowaterbutyoucan’tmakehimdrink.Howsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscourse?語言學-discourse-analysis3.1.1Reference參照/照應Referencewords:pronouns(it,they..),demonstratives(this,that…),thedefinitearticle(the)anditemslikesuchas.e.g.Thereisahouseneartheriver.ThatisJohn’s.Ididn’tknowitwashis.語言學-discourse-analysis3.1.1Reference參照/照應Twotypesofreference:endophora內(nèi)參照:theinterpretivesourceliesintheco-text.exophora外參照:theinterpretivesourceliesinthecontext.e.g.(Maryisstandinghere)Ilikeher.語言學-discourse-analysisEndophora(內(nèi)參照):anaphora回指:thereferentliesinthepriortext.e.g.Lookatthedog,itisdancing!cataphora后指:thereferentliesinthefollowingtext.e.g.WhenImether,Marylookedill.語言學-discourse-analysisTypesofreference

anaphora回指endophoraReference內(nèi)參照cataphora后指指稱exophora外參照語言學-discourse-analysis3.1.2Substitution替代Theprocessorresultofreplacingonewordbyanotherataparticularpositioninastructure.A:I’velostmydictionary.(substituted)B:Getanewone.(substitute)ThreetypesofsubstitutionNominalsubstitution(toreplaceanounornounphrase)Verbalsubstitution(toreplaceaverbphrase)Clausalsubstitution(toreplaceaclause)語言學-discourse-analysisReferencevs.SubstitutionReferenceisarelationonsemanticlevel.Noun–pronoun/nounphraseJack–himAgroupofstudents–thosestudentsSubstitutionisarelationonthelexico-grammaticallevel,arelationbetweenwordsandconstructions,andtheyhavesamefunction.newwatch---newone.語言學-discourse-analysisReferencevs.SubstitutionAsrelationbetweenmeanings,referencecanbeanaphoric,cataphoricandexophoric.Substitutionisarelationwithintext,themajorityofsubstitutionarehighlydependingonthelinguisticcontext,anditmainlyhappensinthelatertext.語言學-discourse-analysis3.1.3Ellipsis省略Leavingoutaconstructionofasentenceforreasonsofeconomy,emphasisorstyle,andtheomittedpartscanonlyberecoveredbythereaderfromthepreviousdiscourse.SubstitutionbyzeroDoyoulikeit?No,Idon’t(likeit).Subtypes:Nominal,verbalandclausalellipsis語言學-discourse-analysis3.1.4Conjunction連詞Anitemoraprocesswhoseprimaryfunctionistoconnectwordsorotherconstruction.Iwasnotinvited.Otherwise,Iwouldhavebeenthere.coordinator并列連詞

(and,but…)subordinator從屬連詞

(because,when)conjunctiveadverbs連接副詞(however,indeed…)Ifyoudogood,goodwillbedonetoyou;but

ifyoudoevil,thesamewillbemeasuredbacktoyou.Therefore,let’sdogood.語言學-discourse-analysis

Lexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords,i.e.thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems.repetition重復Threetypes:synonym同義詞collocation上義詞3.1.5Lexicalcohesion詞匯銜接語言學-discourse-analysisRepetition:repeatthesamewords,orgeneralnouns,orotherwordssharingthemajorityofsemanticfeatures.Thedonkeydied;thepoorcreaturehasworkedhardallhislife.Superodinate:thesameword,synonymornear-synonym,superordinate,generalwords,collocation.Iwatchedafootballgamelastnight,andbecameveryupsetwhentherefereepulledout3redcardsinaminute.語言學-discourse-analysisRepetitionoflexicalitems.Arepeateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem,asynonymornear-synonym,asuperordinate,orageneralword.

Thereisaboyplayingwithfire.Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(repetition)Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(synonym)

Thechildisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(superordinate)Theidiotisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(generalword)語言學-discourse-analysis

Collocation搭配：thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco-occur.AlittlefatmanofBombayWassmokingoneveryhotdayButabirdcalledasnipeFlewawaywithhispipeWhichvexed（生氣的）thefatmanofBombay語言學-discourse-analysis

3.2Coherence連貫

Interestinglyenough,theuseofcohesivedevicesalonemaynotproducetextsthat“makesense”.Considerthefollowingpassage:e.g.IboughtaFord.AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElysees(香榭麗舍大街)wasBlack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed.Thediscussionbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat.

Catshavefourlegs.Thecatisonthemat.Mathasthreeletters.語言學-discourse-analysis從前有座山，山上有座廟，廟里有個老和尚，老和尚在和小和尚講故事:從前有座山……語言學-discourse-analysisCoherence:therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext.Itconcernspeople’sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword.Ifastretchofalanguageisinlinewithsomeexperienceortheir“commonsense”,itwillberecognizedasameaningfultext.

語言學-discourse-analysisCoherenceissthunderlyingthetext---semanticconnections,logicalconnectionsortemporalsequence.Itiscreatedbyourreallifeknowledge.Cohesionistheverbalrealizationofcoherenceintheformofcohesivedevices.Asweseeinthelastsamplepassage.語言學-discourse-analysis(50)Student:I’velostmybunchofkeys!Roommate:It’safinedaytoday.Student:Soyou’vegotafreedinner.(p197)語言學-discourse-analysisGeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Andheisnowalawyer.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Heisnowalawyer.Theabsenceoftheconjunctions“and”inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall.Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw.Insummary,therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence,butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible.語言學-discourse-analysis7.4Discoursemarkers

話語標記語Whatisthedefinitionofdiscoursemarkers?Howmanytypesofdiscoursemarkerarethere?語言學-discourse-analysisdiscoursemarkers(DM):expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence.

conversationalparticles:well

andohparentheticallexicalizedclauses:y’know,Imeanandyousee,connectiveelementsso,afterall,andmoreover.語言學-discourse-analysisThemainroleofdiscoursemarkers:toguidespeaker’sinterpretationsoftheutterances.ThefeaturesofDMs:DMsseemtoclarifyatext’sstructuralrelationsforthereader.Despiteanydifferencesintheiruseindifferenttypesofdiscourse,theseitemsshareanumberofformalandtextualfeatures.語言學-discourse-analysis

7.5ConversationalanalysisTheanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedinordinarylife

iscalledconversationalanalysis(CA).語言學-discourse-analysisThreemechanismsinCAadjacencypairs(相鄰語對)preferencestructure(首選結(jié)構)presequences(前序列)Itincludesthestudyofhowspeakersdecidewhentospeakduringaconversation,howtheutterancesoftwoormorespeakersarerelated,andthedifferentfunctionsthatconversationisusedfor.語言學-discourse-analysis7.5.1Adjacencypairs相鄰語對Certainturnshavespecificfollow-upturns.Questionstakeanswers.Greetingsarereturnedbygreetings,invitationsbyacceptancesorrefusals,andsoon.Suchsequencesofturnsarecalledadjacencypairs:asequenceoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers.

Thesecondutteranceisalwaysaresponsetothefirst.語言學-discourse-analysis

(56)A:Youleftthelighton.B:Itwasn’tme!thesequenceofcomplaint-denialisanadjacencypair.語言學-discourse-analysisAdjacencypairshavefiveproperties:Adjacencypairsconsistoftwoutterances,afirstpartandasecondpart.Thetwopartsarespokenbydifferentspeakers.Thefirstandsecondpartsbelongtospecifictypes,forexample,questionandanswer,orgreetingandgreeting.語言學-discourse-analysisTheformandcontentofthesecondpartdependsonthetypeofthefirstpart.Giventhataspeakerhasproducedafirstpart,thesecondpartisrelevantand expectableasthenextutterance.語言學-discourse-analysisAdjacencypairscomeinmanytypesquestion-answergreeting-greetinginvitation-acceptance/non-acceptanceoffer-acceptance/non-acceptancecomplaint-apology/denialsummons傳喚-responseassertion-assent贊成request-acceptancepromise-acknowledgementthanks-acknowledgementgoodbye-goodbye.語言學-discourse-analysis

However,notallfirstpartsimmediatelyreceivetheirsecondparts.

Itoftenhappensthataquestion-answer(Q-A)sequencewillbedelayedwhileanotherquestion-answersequenceintervenes.ThesequencewillthentaketheformofQ1-Q2-A2-A1,withthemiddlepair(Q2-A2)beingcalledaninsertionsequence插入語列.語言學-discourse-analysis(57)Agent:Doyouwanttheearlyflight! (=Q1)Client:Whattimedoesitarrive? (=Q2)Agent:Nineforty-five. (=A2)Client:Yeah—that’sgreat. (=A1)語言學-discourse-analysisAninsertionsequenceisoneadjacencypairwithinanother.Inprinciple,thenumberofinsertionsequencescanbeinfinite,butthelimitofhumanmemorydoesnotallowthat.Threeorfourinsertionsequencesarecommon.語言學-discourse-analysis(58)A:AreyoucomingtoourpartyTuesdayevening? (Q1)B:CanIbringafriendalong? (Q2)A:Maleorfemale?(Q3)B:Whatdoesthatmatter? (Q4)A:Justamatterofbalance. (A4)B:Male. (A3)A:Okey. (A2)B:I’llbetherethen. (A1)語言學-discourse-analysisEx:1)Son:CanIwatchTV,Dad?Father:Haveyoufinishedyourhomework?Son:No.Father:Thenyoucan’t.Inthisexample,thefatherdelayshisanswertohisson’squestionuntilhehascheckedifthenecessaryconditionexists.語言學-discourse-analysis2)A:Couldyoulendmeafewbucks?

B:Whatfor?

A:IneedtotakeatriptoSanFranciscotoseemygirlfriend.B:Howmuchdoyouwant?A:Well…uh…50dollarsisok.B:Whenareyougonnareturn?

A:NextMonday.B:Allright.Waitforme.I’llberightback.語言學-discourse-analysis7.5.2Preferencestructure

首選結(jié)構Anadjacencypairmayhavedifferentsecondparts.Forexample,aquestioncanbefollowedbya)aquestion,b)byapartialanswer,c)byastatementofignorance,d)byadenialoftherelevanceofthequestionore)byadenialofitspresupposition:語言學-discourse-analysis(59)A:WhatdoesJoedoforaliving?B:a.Doyouneedtoknow?b.Oh,thisandthat.c.I’venoidea.d.What’sthatgottodowithit?e.Hedoesn’t.語言學-discourse-analysisPreferencestructuredividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Thepreferredisthestructurallyexpectednextactandthedispreferredisthestructurallyunexpectednextact.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.語言學-discourse-analysis(60)A:Haveyougotalight?B:Yes.(61)A:Haveyougotalight?B:No,sorry.Idon’tsmoke.B’sreplyin(60)ispreferredanddispreferredin(61):語言學-discourse-analysis

7.5.3Presequences前序列(63)Jeff:Mornin’,Stan!Stan:Hi.How’sitgoin’?Jeff:Oh,can’tcomplain,Iguess.Readyforthemeetingthisafternoon? Stan:Well,Idon’thavemuchchoice! 語言學-discourse-analysisGreetingsexemplifyopeningsequences,utterancesthateasepeopleintoaconversation.Theyconveythemessage“Iwanttotalktoyou”.Theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactionsarecalledpresequences.

語言學-discourse-analysisGreetingsareusuallyreservedforacquaintanceswhohavenotseeneachotherforawhile,oraspresequencesforlongerconversationsbetweenstrangers.Some