托福聽力學(xué)科背景知識植物

授粉根據(jù)植物的授粉對象不同，可分為自花授粉（self-pollination授粉根據(jù)植物的授粉對象不同，可分為自花授粉（self-pollinationpollinatedflowers（Entomophilous（Entomophilousflowerborne鳥媒：其他如借鳥類傳粉的稱鳥媒（BirdMedia（HummingbirdphyphysodesAnnualAnnualTeosinte：墨西哥野玉米墨西哥野玉米（學(xué)名：Zeamexicana(SchradKuntze）世紀(jì)Teosinte：墨西哥野玉米墨西哥野玉米（學(xué)名：Zeamexicana(SchradKuntze）世紀(jì)Beadle的跳躍性而獲得1958年諾貝爾醫(yī)學(xué)獎。世界頂級學(xué)府芝加哥大學(xué)第71968Tulip-breakingVirus（郁金香碎色病毒Y郁金香碎色病毒僅侵染兩種植物，TulipaLilium，1637年DutchTulip-breakingVirus（郁金香碎色病毒Y郁金香碎色病毒僅侵染兩種植物，TulipaLilium，1637年Dutch郁金香的花碎色使人們著迷了幾個世紀(jì)。1258Mushrrifu'd-占植物界碳含量的50%以上。棉花的纖維素含量接近100%，占植物界碳含量的50%以上。棉花的纖維素含量接近100%，40%40%FromWikipedia,thefreeFromWikipedia,thefreeJumptonavigationJumptoFortheUSradiostation,seeFungus"Fungi"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeFungiClockwisefromtopAmanitamuscaria,abasidiomycete;Sarcoscyphacoccinea,anascomycete;breadcoveredinmold;aScientific (L.)Afungus(plural:fungi[3]orfunguses[4])isanymemberofthe asyeastsandmolds,asAfungus(plural:fungi[3]orfunguses[4])isanymemberofthe asyeastsandmolds,aswellasthemorefamiliarmushrooms.organismsareclassifiedasakingdom,fungi,whichisseparatefromothereukaryoticlifekingdomsofplantsandAcharacteristicthatplacesfungiinadifferentkingdomfrombacteria,andsomeprotistsischitinintheircellwalls.Similartofungiareheterotrophs;theyacquiretheirfoodbyabsorbingenvironment.Fungidonotphotosynthesize.Growthistheirmeansmobility,exceptforspores(afewofwhichareflagellated),whichtravelthroughtheairorwater.Fungiaretheprincipaldecomposersecologicalsystems.Theseandotherdifferencesplacefungiina aamonophyleticgroup),aninterpretationthatisalsostronglybymolecularphylogenetics.Thisfungalgroupisdistinctfromstructurallysimilarmyxomycetes(slimemolds)andoomycetesmolds).Thedisciplineofbiologydevotedtothestudyoffungiisasmycology(fromtheGreekμmolds).Thedisciplineofbiologydevotedtothestudyoffungiisasmycology(fromtheGreekμ?κη?mykes,mushroom).Inthemycologywasregardedasabranchofbotany,althoughitisnowfungiaregeneticallymorecloselyrelatedtoanimalsthantoAbundantworldwide,mostfungiareinconspicuousbecauseofthesizeoftheirstructures,andtheircrypticlifestylesinsoiloronmatter.Fungiincludesymbiontsofplants,animals,orotherfungialsoparasites.Theymaybecomenoticeablewhenfruiting,eithermushroomsorasmolds.Fungiperformanessentialroleindecompositionoforganicmatterandhavefundamentalrolesnutrientcyclingandexchangeintheenvironment.Theyhavelongusedasadirectsourceofhumanfood,intheformofandtruffles;asaleaveningagentforbread;andinthefermentationvariousfoodproducts,suchaswine,beer,andsoysauce.Sincethefungihavebeenusedfortheproductionofantibiotics,and,recently,variousenzymesproducedbyfungiareusedindustriallyindetergents.Fungiarealsousedasbiologicalpesticides asalkaloidsandpolyketides,thataretoxictoanimalsincludingThefruitingstructuresofafewspeciescontainpsychotropicandareconsumedrecreationallyorintraditionalspiritualFungicanbreakdownmanufacturedmaterialsandbuildings,becomesignificantpathogensofhumansandotheranimals.LossesFungicanbreakdownmanufacturedmaterialsandbuildings,becomesignificantpathogensofhumansandotheranimals.LossesfoodspoilagecanhavealargeimpactonhumanfoodsuppliesandThefunguskingdomencompassesanenormousdiversityoftaxavariedecologies,lifecyclestrategies,andmorphologiesrangingunicellularaquaticchytridstolargemushrooms.However,littleisofthetruebiodiversityofKingdomFungi,whichhasbeenestimated2.2millionto3.8millionspecies.[5]Ofthese,onlyabout120,000beendescribed,withover8,000speciesknowntobedetrimentalplantsandatleast300thatcanbepathogenictohumans.[6]Everthepioneering18thand19thcenturytaxonomicalworksofLinnaeus,ChristianHendrikPersoon,andEliasMagnusFries,fungibeenclassifiedaccordingtotheirmorphology(e.g.,characteristics inmoleculargeneticshaveopenedthewayforDNAanalysistoincorporatedintotaxonomy,whichhassometimeschallenged traits.PhylogeneticstudiespublishedinthelastdecadehavereshapetheclassificationwithinKingdomFungi,whichisdividedonesubkingdom,sevenphyla,andten Greekwordsphongos(σφ?γ Greekwordsphongos(σφ?γγοwhichrefers molds;[8]therootisalsousedinotherlanguages,suchasGermanSchwamm("sponge")andSchimmelThewordmycologyisderivedfromtheGreekmykes(μ?κη"mushroom")andlogos(λ?γο?"discourse").[10]Itdenotesthestudyoffungi.TheLatinadjectivalformof"mycology"appearedasearlyas1796inabookonthesubjectbyChristiaanPersoon.[11]ThewordappearedinEnglishasearlyas1824inabyRobertKayeGreville.[12]In1836theEnglishnaturalistMilesBerkeley'spublicationTheEnglishFloraofSirJamesEdwardSmith,5.alsoreferstomycologyasthestudyofAgroupofallthefungipresentinaparticularareaorgeographicisknownasmycobiota(pluralnoun,nosingular),e.g.,"themycobiotaFungalhyphaeHyphalErgosterolEndoplasmicLipidFungalhyphaeHyphalErgosterolEndoplasmicLipidPlasmaGolgi analysis,taxonomistsconsideredfungitobemembersofthekingdombecauseofsimilaritiesinlifestyle:bothfungiandplantsmainlyimmobile,andhavesimilaritiesingeneralmorphologygrowthhabitat.Likeplants,fungioftengrowinsoiland,inthe resembleplantssuchasmosses.Thefungiarenowconsideredseparatekingdom,distinctfrombothplantsandanimals,fromthey resembleplantssuchasmosses.Thefungiarenowconsideredseparatekingdom,distinctfrombothplantsandanimals,fromtheyappeartohavedivergedaroundonebillionyearsago(aroundbiochemical,andgeneticfeaturesaresharedwithotherorganisms,othersareuniquetothefungi,clearlyseparatingthemfromtheSharedcontainmembrane-boundnucleiwithchromosomesthatcontainwithnoncodingregionscalledintronsandcodingregionscalled a andpolysaccharides(e.g.,glycogen,whichisalsofoundinWithanimals:FungilackchloroplastsandareheterotrophicandsorequirepreformedorganiccompoundsasenergyWithplants:Fungihaveacellwall[20]andvacuoles.[21]Theybybothsexualandasexualmeans,andlikebasalplantgroupsasfernsandmosses)producespores.Similartomossesandalgae,typicallyhavehaploidWitheuglenoidsandasfernsandmosses)producespores.Similartomossesandalgae,typicallyhavehaploidWitheuglenoidsandbacteria:Higherfungi,euglenoids,andbacteriaproducetheaminoacidL-lysineinspecificbiosynthesiscalledtheα-aminoadipateThecellsofmostfungigrowastubular,elongated,andthread-(filamentous)structurescalledhyphae,whichmaycontainnucleiandextendbygrowingattheirtips.Eachtipcontainsasetaggregatedvesicles—cellularstructuresconsistingofproteins,andotherorganicmolecules—calledtheSpitzenk?rper.[25]Bothandoomycetesgrowasfilamentoushyphalcells.[26]similar-lookingorganisms,suchasfilamentousgreengrowrepeatedcelldivisionwithinachainofcells.[18]aresingle-celledfungi(yeasts)thatdonotformhyphae,andsomehavebothhyphalandyeastIncommonwithsomeplantandanimalspecies,morethan70speciesdisplayUnique bybuddingorfission.DimorphicfungicanswitchbetweenaphaseandahyphalphaseinresponsetoenvironmentalThefungalcellwalliscomposedofglucansandchitin;whileglucanstheexoskeletonofarthropods,[29][30]fungiaretheonlyorganismscombinethesetwostructuraltheexoskeletonofarthropods,[29][30]fungiaretheonlyorganismscombinethesetwostructuralmoleculesintheircellwall.Unlikethoseplantsandoomycetes,fungalcellwallsdonotcontainOmphalotusnidiformis,abioluminescentMostfungilackanefficientsystemforthelong-distancewaterandnutrients,suchasthexylemandphloeminmanyplants.formrhizomorphs,[32]whichresembleandperformfunctionssimilartherootsofplants.Aseukaryotes,fungipossessa acidandpyrophosphateaschemicalbuildingblocks.[33]Plantssomeotherorganismshaveanadditionalterpenebiosynthesisintheirchloroplasts,astructurefungiandanimalsdonothave.[34]produceseveralsecondarymetabolitesthataresimilaroridenticalstructuretothosemadebyplants.[33]Manyoftheplantandinstructuretothosemadebyplants.[33]Manyoftheplantandins