心理動(dòng)力學(xué)診斷與治療：Matteo Ricci,Psychoanalysis,and Face in Chinese Culture and Diplomacy

Loewenberg,P.(2011),MatteoRicci,Psychoanalysis,andFaceinChineseCultureandDiplomacy.Am.Imago,68(4):689-706.

(2011).AmericanImago,G§(4):689-706

MatteoRicci,Psychoanalysis,andFaceinChineseCultureand

Diplomacy

PeterLoewenberg?

Intoleranceofminorinsultswillruingreatprojects.

—AnalectsofConfucius

Thepastisneverdead.It'snotevenpast...Thepresent,youknow,began10,000yearsago,butthepastbeganoneminuteago.

—■WilliamFaulkner

Howtopenetratethecovertlevelofanaliencultureisstilloneofthemostdifficultproblemswhichconfronttheinvestigator.Sincemostofanysociety'sattitudesoperateattheunconsciouslevel,theycanrarelybeascertainedbydirectquestioning...Theinvestigator...mustbeabletoperceivetheemotionalcontextofsituationsandtounderstandmuchthatisleftunsaid.

—RalphLinton

CarlSchorske,MatteoRicci,andPsychoanalysisinChina

WhenItoldCarlSchorskeofbeginningmyworkteachingpsychoanalysisinChina,hesaid:“ItoccurstomethatwesternscholarslikeyouseemtowalkinthefootstepsoftheJesuitfathersofthelatesixteenthcenturywhobroughtwesternsciencetotheCelestialEmpire.(Oneofthemserved,Iseemtoremember,asAstronomerRoyal)...TothinkthatyouwilleducatetheChineseanalysts!IwonderwhatmygoodfriendJosephLevinson[ItooktwoofLevinson'scoursesonChinaasagraduatestudent.PL]wouldhavesaidtothatturnintheConfuciantradition…”(personalcommunications,April30andDecember28,2007).Withhisunfeilingsenseof

AnearlierversionofthisessaywaspresentedtotheIPAAsianCentenaryCongress,Beijing.October22-24.2010.

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thedialecticalironybetweenorthodoxyandadaptationandwonderfulhistoricalresonance,CarlwithassurancepointedtoFatherMatteoRicci(1552-1610)andtheearlyJesuitsasrelevantforerunnersandprecedentsforthecurrentworkoftheInternationalPsychoanalyticalAssociation(IPA)ChinaCommittee.

RicciauthoredthefirstChinese-Portuguesedictionary;hefoundedtheJesuithousesinNan-ch'ang,Shao-chow,Shanghai,NankingandPeking.HispolicywastoadapttothespecialconditionsofthecountryandavoidunnecessaryattacksontraditionalChinesecustomsandhabits.Hewassensitivetoissuesofce,urgingmissionariestoavoidanythingthat“clashedwithChinesepride,whichwouldnotadmitthatChinahadanythingtolearnfromforeigners.55Personally,hechosetodressasamandarin.HeencouragedabroadtolerationofritesandceremoniesinhonoroffamilyancestorsandConfucius.

ThesepracticesresultedincontroversieswiththeDominicansandFranciscansandappealstotheHolySeeleadingtotheSacredCongregationoftheInquisitioncondemningtolerationoftheancestralrites.Ricci'swritingswerecensuredfor“toofavorablereferencestotheancientChinesephilosophers.”Ricciwasfoundtobe“inerror”bythePapalBull“Exquosingular^'(1742)ofPopeClementXII.Christianswereforbiddentoparticipateorassistin''sacrificesorsolemnoblations^,inhonorofConfuciusorthedead(Brucker,1912).

RiccistressedthenecessarymutualidentificationandadaptationinforeignworkwhenhewroteabouthisfriendFengYinging,acivicofficialandscholarwhowasimprisonedinBeijing,“hetreatedtheaffairsofourfathersasiftheywerehisownandourfathersinturntreatedhisasiftheywereours.’’1CarlhasaspecialcapacityforhumanempathythatwouldhaveendearedhimtoMatteoRicci.

FaceinChineseCulture

WeintheWesthavemuchtolearnfromChinaintheimportantrealmsofinterpersonalrelationsandpublictactandsensibility.Theconceptofce,wroteLinYutang(1939):''abstractandintangible,itisyetthemostdelicatestandardby-690-

whichChinesesocialintercourseisregulated...itisprizedaboveallearthlypossessions.Itismorepowerfulthanftiteandfavor，andmorerespectedthantheconstitution^^(p.200).FaceisanancientChineseconceptofprotocolandsocialbehaviorthatisrelevantfortheunderstandingofChineseperceptionsofeachother,ofinteractionwithforeigners,andofforeignpolicyandinternationalbehavior.ByfaceinChinesecultureImeantheselfaspresentedto,orrevealedto,others.Chineseculturehasahighlydevelopedsensibilitytopreserving,nothumiliatingthefaceofothers.Face,maybeconferred,saved,orlost.Apersonorgroupmay“save”or“l(fā)eave”7&f^toanotherbynotexposingalapse,slip,orfauxpas.Face,whichisanexternalsurfacequalityvisibletoothers,impliesreputationandgoodname.ErvingGoffmao(195S)defines認(rèn)faceas“actionstakenbyapersontomakewhateverheisdoingconsistentwithfcce”(p.216).Faceisdramaturgyasasocialconstruct:“Itistherulesofthegroupandthedefinitionofthesituationwhichdeterminehowmuchfeelingoneistohaveforfaceandhowthisfeelingistobedistributedamongthefacesinvolved^^(p.213).MartinC.Yang(1945)writes:“Faceisreallyapsychologicalsatisfaction,asocialesteemaccordedbyothers”(p.167).Toloseface，inMandarinChinesediulicin，meanstobedisgraced,humiliated,toloseone'scredit,goodname,orreputation,tobemadetofeelembarrassmentbeforeagroup.Therefore,therestorationoffacemustbeinpublic.Facemaybegivenandevenaskedfor,asin:“Pleasestopitandgivemealittleface,willyou?”O(jiān)r,“Pleasehelpme;itisamatterofface”(p.171).

Facemaybepresentedasagift.Igiveanexamplefrommypersonalexperience.IrepresenttheIPAChinaCommittee,aninternationalgroupofpsychoanalystsexperiencedinmentalhealtheducation,withabackgroundof20yearsofintensivecoursesinpsychodynamicpsychotherapyinChina,whohavetrainedChinesementalhealthprofessionalsinftillpsychoanalytictrainingsince2008.2CarlSchorske'sanalogytoJesuitsbringingtoChinaaWesternsystemofthoughtisappropriatelystimulatingofironyandself-reflection.

WewishedtoholdaconferenceinChinain2010.1wrotetoadistinguishedleaderinChinesementalhealth,whowasherselfsponsoringamajorCongressin2009,requestingherinterestandsupportforourproject.Herresponsewas:“Ithink

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ifwedecidetoholdan'AsianPsychoanalyticConference5in2010,2009'sconferencecanbeapre-eonference”(personalcommunication,December23,2008).AWesternerwouldhavequeried:“Whatisyourbudget?55“Howmuchmoneydoyouhave?”“Which‘stars’doyouplantoinvite?”Bycontrast,thisChineseeminencesubordinatedherCongresstoouryetunplannedpotentialconference,thuscreatingandgraciouslybestowingitsgiftonus，thenewcomerstothescene.

ThefirstlinguisticuseoftheconceptmaybetracedasforbackastheWarringStatesPeriod(475-200BCE),whenakinginoneofthewarringkingdomssworenevertoseehismotherC￡onthefaceoftheEarth^^becauseshehadbetrayedhiminfavorofhisbrother.However,itwouldbeadisgraceforaChinesenevertoseehismother.Thereforetocircumventhisoath,theKingdugatunnelbetweenhispalaceandthatofhismother,sothathecouldstillvisitwithher,thoughnot“onthefaceoftheEarth.,,

AfamoussagainChinesehistory,stillregularlyenactedinChineseoperas,wasrecordedbyahistorianoftheWesternHanDynasty(100BCE).TheEmperorShihuangdiunifiedChinaaround200BCE,butdiedsoonthereafter.Twoleaderscontestedforhisempire.OnewasLiuBang，alowlydistrictadministrator.TheotherwasXiangYu,awarriorofnoblelineage.TheirtwoanniesfoughtfiercebattlesinNorthChinabetweentheYellowandtheYangtzeRivers.Notwithstandingearlyimpressivevictories,XiangYuwasdefeatedandleftwithonlyafewofhisfollowers.HecouldhavereturnedtohisnativestrongholdsouthoftheRiver(anareadescribedatthattimeastheland“EastoftheRiver”).However,accordingtothe“GrandHistorian”SimaQian(ca.145-ca.89BCE),hewashumiliatedandwouldnothave“foce”tomeetwithhispeople.Hechoseinsteadtocommitsuicidebyhisownsword(ShiJi7).3

AccordingtotheOxfordDictionajyoftheEnglishLanguage(2^ed.),thetermfacewasfirstusedintheEnglishlanguagebytheEnglishcommunityinChinain1876,referringtothebehavioralmodesoftheChinesetoavoidincurringorinflictingembarrassment,disgraceorhumiliation.AnexampleofWesternperceptionsofceininteractionswithChineseisadescriptionattheendofthenineteenthcenturybyAmericandiplomatandPresbyterianministerChesterHolcombe(1842-1912):

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AmongtheChinese,etiquettemayalmostbesaidtotakeprecedenceofmoralityinimportance.Sofarasrigidadherencetooutwardformsmaygo,asanationtheyexcelallothersintheartofpoliteness(1895,p.

261).

MuchofthefalsehoodtowhichtheChineseasanationaresaidtobeaddictedisaresultofthedemandsofetiquette.Aplain，frank“no”istheheightofdiscourtesy.Refusalordenialofanysortmustbesoftenedandtoneddownintoanexpressionofregrettedinability.Unwillingnesstograntafavorisnevershown.Inplaceofitthereisseenachastenedfeelingofsorrowthatunavoidablebutquiteimaginarycircumstancesrenderitwhollyimpossible.CenturiesofpracticeinthisformofevasionhavemadetheChinesematchlesslyfertileintheinventionanddevelopmentofexcuses.Itisrare,indeed,thatoneiscaughtatalossforabitofartfullyembroideredfictionwithwhichtohideanunwelcometruth.Thesameremarkholdsgoodinregardtoallmannerofdisagreeablesubjectsofconversation.Theymustbeavoided.Anynumberofwindingpathsmaybemadearoundthem,butnonemustevergodirectlythrough(pp.274-276).

Contra-face:Humiliation

Psychoanalystsandculturalhistorianspenetrateappearancesandexploredialecticallythehiddenmeaningsofthemanifestsurface.Theotherside,thedarkside,ofanacuteculturalsensibilitytofaceisahighcultivationofthestrategiesofdisgraceandhumiliationdestroyingyhce.AlfGerlach(2010)hasreferredtothe“enormoussadismmarkingthepublichumiliation”(p.158).Infortunatecases,significantotherswillrespondtopublicshamingbyaffirmationsofloveandworth.

IwouldlikeheretodrawonYuHua'sgreatcontemporaryChinesenovel,ChronicleofaBloodMerchant(2003).4YudescribestheCulturalRevolution(1966-76)asitstruckatypicalChinesefamily.OnedaypostersappearedonthestreetdenouncingXuYulan,wifeofXuSanguanandthemotherofthreeboys,asa“brokenshoe,ashamelesstramp，’’aprostitutesinceagefifteen;

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“youcouldsleepwithherforjusttwoyuananight...themenshehadsleptwithwouldfilluptenwholetrucks”(p.165).Inshortorderhalfofherhairisshavedoffyinyangfashionina''strugglesession.”Sheissoshamedshefeels“itwouldbebettertodie”(p.167).SheismadetostandonastoolalldayinthebusiestpartoftheshoppingstreetwithasignaroundherneckreadingXUYULANPROSTITUTE.5Herfeetswellandherlegsache.“Shehadtostandwithherheadbowedinfrontofher,becausecriminalswereexpectedtobowtheirheadsinjustsuchamanner^,(p.168).Thefamilyisrequiredtohave''strugglesessions55ofdenunciationathomeinwhichshesays,“Iknowyouallhateme.You'velostalotoffacebecauseofme55(p.177).

Hersonsareintimidatedandrefusetobringherfood.Herhusband'sloyaltyalonesustainsher.Hepacksplainrice“withoutanyextras”intoalittlealuminumlunchbox,butworriesthathewouldbeseenas'"shieldingtheenemy.,^Atthebottomofthelunchboxhehidredbraisedporkhecookedforher.Whennooneislisteninghewhisperstoher:“Imadeitforyouinsecret.Eventhekidsdon'tknow.Ihidthegoodstuffundertherice.Noone'slookingnow.Haveabite”(p.172).

ThecruelsadismofherpublichumiliationbringsforthlovingtendernessofXuYulanforherhusband.Inoneofthemostmovingexpressionsofmatureloveinliterature,shetellshim:

Whenmyfeetareswollen,youpourabasinofhotwaterformetosoakthemin.WhenIcomehomelate,you'vekeptsomedinnerunderthequiltbecauseyouwereafraiditwouldgetcold.WhenI'mstandingoutthereinthestreet,you'retheonewhobringsmethingstoeatandwatertodrink.XuSanguan,aslongasyou'regoodtome,I'mnotafraidofanythingintheworld(p.169).

Freud(1907[1906])said:“Thehealingpowerofloveagainstadelusionisnottobedespised(p.22).”

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SelfPsychology

“Face”hascoirelationstothepsychoanalyticunderstandingsofself-esteemandnarcissismofHeinzKohut(1923-

1981).Self-esteemandself-cohesionarethecentralparadigmsofthetherapeuticclinicaltheoriesofself-psychology.Kohut(1971)singledoutthepainfuleventsinchildhoodwhen“thechild'slegitimateclaimfortheapprovingattentionofthegrownupshadnotbeenrespondedto,butinwhichthechildhadbeenbelittledandridiculedattheverymomentwhenhemostproudlyhadwantedtodisplayhimself’(p.232).Peoplewithnarcissisticvulnerabilityseekexternalsuppliesofself-confirmation,praise,andemotionalsuppliesfromtheirenvironment.Theyarehypersensitivetocriticism,toanyfantasiedorperceivedlackofinterest,orabsenceofpraise,fromthosewhoareviewedaspeersorauthorities.

Whentheseideasareappliedtothehistoricalexperienceofthelast150years,wecanunderstandtheChinesereactiontoinsults,defeatsandhumiliationsasrageatnotreceivingappropriaterespect—■aragethatcanonlybeacquittedbyrevenge,byreversingtheshame,andpublicallydefeatingandhumblingtheWesternimperialists.Thereisacompellingneedtowipeoutandreversethelowself-esteembycontrolofChineseterritoriesandbordersandthedemandforforeignrecognitionofChinesestrength,importance,anduniqueness.Feelingsofpasthumiliationcancauseahypersensitivitytoperceivedrealorimaginedslightsandtheneedtoturnapainfulpassiveexperienceintoanactivesenseofmasteryandsuperiority(Kohut,1972).

Iwishtoelaborateontheappropriatenessofapplyingclinicaldiagnosticcategoriestogroups.HistoryandpsychoanalysisaresciencesthatusewhatWeber(1958)termed''theoreticallyconstructed,,or“ideal”types(p.323)~~modelsthatareabstractedfromrealityandthereforemayilluminateotherrealities.SaidWeber:“Theyenableustoseeif,inparticulartraitsorintheirtotalcharacter,thephenomenaapproximateoneofourconstructions:todeterminethedegreeofapproximationofthehistoricalphenomenontothetheoreticallyconstructedtype”(p.324).Thus,ifvariousclinicalcategoriesthrow

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lightonculturalconductandinteraction,asIbelieveKohut'sself-psychologydoesontheculturalusesoffice，itmovesourunderstandingfurthertousetheexplanatorymodelsoridealtypesofrelateddisciplines,especiallyinmattersofemotionsandbehavior.

ModernHistoricalTraumasandChineseSelf-Esteem

BeyondthefactthattheChineseexperiencedtraumasinthe19thcenturyandthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturywhenChinawasinvadedandpartiallyoccupiedbytheWesternpowersandJapan,thereisadeeperhistoricalbackgroundororiginthatisimportant.Chineseculturehasalonganddistinguishedhistory.WhenChinawasoccupiedandevenruledbyforeigners,MongolandManchu，itsculturedevelopedmainlyintheCentralPlainsandwasnotchangedbytheinvaders.Onthecontraiy,theChinesecultivatedandassimilatedthem,thoughtheyhadtheirownlanguagesandculturaltradition.TheChinese,especiallytheHanaristocrats,consideredthemselvesassuperiortoothers,oftenseeingforeignerswhohadnotbenefitedfromChinesecultureas“savages”or“barbarians.”China'soriginalnameiscomposedoftwocharacters“zhongguo;’meaningthe“CentralKingdom(orcountiy).55TheChineseregardedthemselvesasthecenteroftheworld,thusdevelopingintheirunconsciousacompensatoryself-importanceandarroganceaboutthemselves.WhentheyconfrontedtheadvancedWesternsteelgunboatsandfireannsandweredefeatedbythe"'uncultivatedsavages，”theyexperiencedpainfolfeelingsofloss-of^ceandthetraumaofhumiliation.6

ThesequenceofhumiliatingtraumasofforeignincursionandexploitationofChinabytheWesternpowersinthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesincludedtheOpiumWarin1839,whichendedwiththecedingofHongKongtoBritainin1841.ThefirstAmericantreatywithChina,theTreatyofWanghsiaof1844,signedbytheImperialCommissionerCryingandCalebCushingfortheUnitedStates,placedAmericanresidentsunderextra-territorialcivilandcriminaljurisdictionofconsularandmixedcourts.

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DuringtheSecondOpiumWarAnglo-FrenchForcesinvadedChinain1860,andoccupiedBeijing.TheOldSummerPalaceinanorthwesternsuburbofBeijingconsistedofmanybeautifulbuildingsthatheld3,500yearsofculturaltreasuresspreadoutovermanylakesandgardens.TheEnglishMinisterPlenipotentiary,LordElgin,ofParthenonmarblefame,orderedthepalacesackedandburned.Itwasburneddownafterbeingonfireforthreesuccessivedaysandnights.WhentheEight-PowerAlliedForcesagaininvadedBeijingduringtheBoxerRebellionin1900theyplunderedandsetthe13buildingsthatremainedstandingonfire.NotallWesternersapprovedofthisculture-destroyingvandalism.Theever-compassionateVictorHugowroteaparable:

OnedaytwobanditsenteredtheSummerPalace.Oneplundered,theotherburned,Victoiycanbeathievingwoman,orsoitseems.ThedevastationoftheSummerPalacewasaccomplishedbythetwovictorsactingjointly...AllthetreasuresofallourcathedralsputtogethercouldnotequalthisformidableandsplendidmuseumoftheOrient.Itcontainednotonlymasterpiecesofart,butmassesofjewelry.Whatagreatexploit,whatawindfall!Oneofthetwovictorsfilledhispockets;whentheothersawthishefilledhiscoffers.AndbacktheycametoEurope,arminarm,laughingaway.Suchisthestoryofthetwobandits.WeEuropeansarethecivilizedones,andforus,theChinesearethebarbarians.Thisiswhat

civilizationhasdonetobarbarism.Beforehistoiy,oneofthetwobanditswillbecalledFrance;theotherwillbecalledEngland.7

ThemissionofBritishGeneralCharlesGeorgeGordon(1833-1885)—~knownas“Chinese”Gordon—toBeijingin

1880wasanegregiousexampleofEuropeanarrogancethatshowednosensitivitytoChineseface.AccordingtoLyttonStrachey(1918),inaninterviewwiththeChineseministersGordonusedatoneandlanguage“suchthattheinterpretershookwithterror,upsetacupoftea,andfinallyrefusedtotranslatethedreadfulwords;uponwhichGordonsnatchedupadictionary,and,withhisfingerontheword'idiocy/showedittothe

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startledMandarins”(p.188).The1894-1895JiawuWarwithJapanandtheconcluding1895TreatyofShimonoseki(whichcededFormosa,thePescadoresIslands,andtheLiaotungPeninsulatoJapan,recognizedthefullindependenceofKorea,andincludedalargecashindemnitytoJapan)isregardedinaculturallyChina-centeredEastAsiaasaninferiorformer“student”strikingthe“teacher”~~~anextraordinarypublichumiliation(Gries,pp.70-72).8

In1897,GermanyoccupiedKiaochowBayandQuingtao,andextractedtheexclusiverighttobuildrailwaysandminesinShandongProvince.TheRussiansextorteda25-yearleaseofthesouthernLiaotungPeninsula,includingDairenandPortArthur.Francereceiveda99~yearleaseofKwangchowBayandtherighttobuildtheHanoi-YunnanRailwaythatwascompletedin1910.TheBoxerRebellion(1899-1900)wheneightforeignpowerssentaninternationalexpeditionthatseizedTientsinandBeijing,endedwithhumiliatingforeigncontrolofmaritimeandnativecustomsandthesaltmonopoly.TheAmerican“OpenDoor”policyof1900wasaU.S.bidnottobeexcludedfromtheeconomicconcessionsandcontroloffactories,steamships,mines,railways,andpoliticalspheresofinfluencethatEuropeanpowersandJapanweresecuringinChina.Tosummarize,thecontempt,brutality,andindignitythatcamewithforeigninterventionsandinternationalexpeditions,treatyports,foreign“concessions”ontheChinesecoastanduptherivers,“gunboatdiplomacy,5,controloftariffsandcustoms,railwayandminingconcessionstoforeigninvestors,allcontributedtoaspecialChinesesensitivitytothepsychologicalissuesoffaceandshamebeforetheworld.The1923programofDoctorSunYat-sen(1866-1925)definedtheSanminZhuyi(ThreePrinciplesofthePeople)asnationalism(minzii)，democracy(minquari),andthePeople’sLivelihood(minsheng),representinganearlyattempttoraiseChineseautonomyandself-esteem.SunYat-senbecameanacknowledgedpartoftheinspirationalhistoricallegacyofboththeKuomintangNationalistandtheChineseCommunistParty.

Amongtheseemotionallychargedassaultsandinsults,undoubtedlythegreatestChinesehistoricaltraumawasthehumiliationbytheJapaneseImperialland,naval,andairinvasion,conquest,andoccupationofallofeasternChina-698-

andalargeportionofnorthern,centralandsouthernChinaintheyears1931to1945.InthisperiodJapaninvadedandcolonizedManchuriafollowingtheMukdenIncidentin1931.TheJapaneseinvasionofNorthernandCentralChinabeganaftertheMarcoPoloBridgeIncidentin1937.JapaneventuallyheldeveryimportantstrategicobjectiveinChinafromtheindustryofManchuriatoBeijingandShanghai,andthesouthernportsofCantonandHongKong.Theweak,incompetent,andcorruptNationalistgovernmentprovedincapableofdefendingChineseterritory.China—anundeveloped,pre-industriallandfacingaworld-classindustrialpower~hadnoairforce,nonavy,andanunderequipped,demoralized,ineffectivearmy.TheKuomintangannywaslikeasievethroughwhichtheJapanesemovedinSouthChinain1944-45.AllofEasternChinawasopentotheJapaneseattheirwill.Intheirbookwrittenduringthewar,TheodoreH,WhiteandAnnaleeJacoby(1980)describedtheChineseArmyas:“apulp,atired,dispirited,unorganizedmass,despisedbytheenemy,alientoitsownpeople,neglectedbyitsgovernment,ridiculedbyitsallies.NoonedoubtedthecourageoftheChinesesoldier,buttheannyhadnomobility,nostrength,noleadership...CorruptionintheChineseforceswasacancerattheheartthatinfectedeverylimb”(pp.132,139).Theysardonicallywrote:“ThemannersoftheKuomintanginpublicwereperfect;itsonlyfaultswerethatitsleadershipwascorrupt,itssecretpolicemerciless,itspromiseslies,anditsdailydietthebloodandtearsofthepeopleofChina”(p.256).

OnOctober1,1949,ChairmanMaoZedonginBeijing'sTianAnMenSquareproclaimedthePeople'sRepublicsaying:“TheChinesepeoplehavestoodup!”(ZhongguoRenminZhanQiLail).Hewas“repairing”centuriesofhurtandshame.NowChinahadarisenandstoodasanequalbeforethepeoplesandnationsoftheworld.ThenewChinesenationalanthemwas:

StandUp!StandUp!

Notwillingtobeaslavepeople.

(QiLai!QiLail

Buyuanzuonullduhrenmin^

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IwasinBeijingonthe60anniversaryofthiseventin2009andwitnessedfootageofthisspeechreplayedonallTVmonitorsandmediatoaeuphoricallycelebratingcity.

Onthe60也anniversaryofthe1950ChineseentryintotheKoreanWar,tothemonthonlyoneyearaftertheproclamationofthePeoples'Republic,XnYan,oftheChinesePeople'sLiberationArmy'sNationalDefenseUniversity,said:

ItwasundoubtedlyagreatvictorythatChinafoughtthetroopsoftheUS,thestrongestpowerintheworld,backtothe38thParallel.ThesuccessensuredapeacefoldevelopmentenvironmentforChinaandtheChinesearmy'sinternationalprestigewassuccessfullybuiltthroughthewar...TheNewChinademonstrateditsfightingcapacitythroughparticipationintheKoreanWar(GlobalTimes.2010,October27).

NotethattheemphasisisnotonanyperceivedthreattoChina!TheposthocjustificationandinterpretationoftheChineseparticipationintheKoreanWarisentirelyonChina's“prestige”anddemonstrationof“fightingcapacity”totheworld一issuesoffaceratherthananyvitalnationalinterest.

FaceinContemporaryChineseDiplomacy

AnexplicitcaseofhowhistoricalChinesehumiliationwasinvokedwithgreatforceinthepresentwastheMay8,

1999AmericanbombingoftheChineseEmbassyinBelgradeinwhichthreeChinesewerekilled.10AlthoughPresidentWilliamJ.Clintonadmittedthebombingwasa“tragicmistake”anddeliveredhis“regretsandprofoundcondolences55totheChinesepeople,theChinesepressdidnotpublishClinton'sapologiesuntil11May.InsteadBeijing'sPeople'sDailypublishedaneditorialentitled“Thisisnot1899China:’’

Thisis1999,not1899.Thisisnot...theagewhenpeoplecanbargeaboutintheworldjustbysendingafewgunboats...ItisnottheagewhentheWesternpowersplunderedtheImperialPalaceatwill,destroyedthe

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OldSummerPalace,andseizedHongKongandMacao...ChinaisaChinathathasstoodup;itisaChinathatdefeatedtheJapanesefascists;itisaChinathathadatrialofstrengthandwonvictoryovertheUnitedStatesontheKoreanbattleground.TheChinesepeoplearenottobebullied,andChina'ssovereigntyanddignityarenottobeviolated.Thehotbloodofpeopleofideasandintegritywhoopposedimperialismforover150yearsflowsintheveinsoftheChinesepeople.U.S.-ledNATOhadbetterrememberthis.11

TheBelgradebombing,inthisofficialChinesegovernmentview,wasnotanisolatedeventthatmayormaynothavebeenintentional.(IagreethathittingthecoderoomoftheEmbassymakesitahardsellasan“accident.”)Rather,thebombingwasspecificallycastinthecontextofthelootingandburningoftheOldSummerPalacein1860,theBoxerRebellionof1899,andtheforeigninvasionofBeijing,makingthisthelatestinanhistoricprocessionofinsultingWesternaggressionsagainstChina.DemonstrationsthatamountedtoariotoccurredoutsidetheU.S.EmbassyinBeijing.ViolentdemonstrationsdonotexistinChinawithoutgovernmentpermission.Organizedbussesbroughtstudentsinfromtheuniversities.12

WhatappearedtotheC