資源、比較優(yōu)勢(shì)與收入分配

Chapter4資源、比較優(yōu)勢(shì)與收入分配Resources,ComparativeAdvantage,andIncomeDistribution前言Preview生產(chǎn)可能性

Productionpossibilities產(chǎn)品價(jià)格、要素價(jià)格與生產(chǎn)的投入與產(chǎn)出水平

Relationshipamongoutputprices,input(factor)prices,andlevelsofinputs/output赫克歇爾-俄林模型

TradeintheHeckscher-Ohlinmodel要素價(jià)格均等化

Factorpriceequalization收入分配和收入不均等

Incomedistributionandincomeinequality實(shí)證檢驗(yàn)

Empiricalevidence2Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.前言Introduction在現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中,勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率之間的差異可以部分地解釋貿(mào)易產(chǎn)生的原因，而貿(mào)易的產(chǎn)生同樣反映了國(guó)家間資源稟賦的差異。赫克歇爾-俄林理論：

勞動(dòng)充裕的國(guó)家擁有生產(chǎn)勞動(dòng)密集型產(chǎn)品的比較優(yōu)勢(shì)，資本充裕的國(guó)家擁有生產(chǎn)資本密集型產(chǎn)品的比較優(yōu)勢(shì)。如果兩國(guó)發(fā)生貿(mào)易，勞動(dòng)充裕的國(guó)家應(yīng)該生產(chǎn)并出口勞動(dòng)密集型產(chǎn)品，進(jìn)口資本密集型產(chǎn)品；資本充裕的國(guó)家應(yīng)該生產(chǎn)并出口資本密集型產(chǎn)品，進(jìn)口勞動(dòng)密集型產(chǎn)品。3Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.

商品價(jià)格

生產(chǎn)成本生產(chǎn)技術(shù)

要素價(jià)格要素供給（稟賦）

要素的派生需求最終產(chǎn)品的需求偏好

收入分配古典模型

H-O模型要素稟賦理論的一般均衡框架4Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.前言IntroductionWhiletradeispartlyexplainedbydifferencesinlaborproductivity,italsocanbeexplainedbydifferencesinresourcesacrosscountries.貿(mào)易發(fā)生的原因：勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率與資源差異TheHeckscher-Ohlintheoryarguesthatdifferencesinlabor,laborskills,physicalcapital,landorotherfactorsofproductionacrosscountriescreateproductivedifferencesthatexplainwhytradeoccurs.Countrieshavearelativeabundance相對(duì)充裕

offactorsofproduction.Productionprocessesusefactorsofproductionwith

relativeintensity相對(duì)密集.

5Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.赫克歇爾-俄林理論

TheHeckscher-OhlinModel赫克歇爾-俄林理論：Heckscher-Ohlintheory強(qiáng)調(diào)要素稟賦的差異是貿(mào)易產(chǎn)生的唯一動(dòng)因表明比較優(yōu)勢(shì)是受下列因素影響的：相對(duì)要素充裕度(就國(guó)家而言)相對(duì)要素密集度(就產(chǎn)品而言)還被稱為要素比例理論factor-proportionstheory

不同要素在不同國(guó)家比例不同；不同要素在不同產(chǎn)品投入比例不同；6Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.埃利·赫克歇爾（EliHeckscher）《域際和國(guó)際貿(mào)易》老師伯蒂爾·俄林（BertilOhlin）學(xué)生7Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.關(guān)于模型aboutModel模型的假設(shè)模型的設(shè)立與分析模型的假說(shuō)假說(shuō)理論一國(guó)的假設(shè)；兩國(guó)的假設(shè)？8Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.兩要素的赫克歇爾俄林經(jīng)濟(jì)模型

TwoFactorHeckscher-OhlinModel模型的假定：Laborservicesandlandaretheresourcesimportantforproduction.勞動(dòng)和土地是生產(chǎn)的重要資源。Theamountoflaborservicesandlandvariesacrosscountries,andthisvariationinfluencesproductivity.不同國(guó)家資源存量，從而影響生產(chǎn)率。Thesupplyoflaborservicesandlandineachcountryisconstant.各國(guó)勞動(dòng)和土地供給給定。9Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.兩要素的赫克歇爾俄林經(jīng)濟(jì)模型

TwoFactorHeckscher-OhlinModelOnlytwogoodsareimportantforproductionandconsumption:clothandfood.假定兩種產(chǎn)品。Competitionallowsfactorsofproductiontobepaida“competitive”wage,afunctionoftheirproductivitiesandthepriceofthegoodthattheyproduce,andallowsfactorstobeusedintheindustrythatpaysthemost.市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)使得要素可獲得“競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性”工資，要素將付高薪資的部門(mén)從業(yè)。Onlytwocountriesaremodeled:domesticandforeign

兩國(guó)假設(shè)。10Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.模型的假設(shè)條件一個(gè)國(guó)家生產(chǎn)兩種產(chǎn)品：棉布cloth和糧食food.兩種產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)需要投入兩種有限供給的要素：勞動(dòng)（L）和土地（T）。兩個(gè)國(guó)家中，糧食的生產(chǎn)是土地密集型的，而棉布的生產(chǎn)是勞動(dòng)密集型的。所有市場(chǎng)是完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的。兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型11Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.生產(chǎn)的可能性

ProductionPossibilitiesWhenthereismorethanonefactorofproduction,theopportunitycostinproductionisnolongerconstantandthePPFisnolongerastraightline.Why?當(dāng)模型不是唯一要素投入，機(jī)會(huì)成本不再不變，生產(chǎn)可能性邊界也不再是直線。？Let’sexpandthepreviouschapter’smodeltoincludetwofactorsofproduction,laborservicesandland.aTC=hectaresoflandusedtoproduceonem2ofclothaLC=hoursoflaborusedtoproduceonem2ofclothaTF=hectaresoflandusedtoproduceonecalorieoffoodaLF=hoursoflaborusedtoproduceonecalorieoffoodL=totalamountoflaborservicesavailableforproductionT=totalamountofland(terrain)availableforproduction12Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.生產(chǎn)的可能性

ProductionPossibilities兩要素模型的生產(chǎn)可能性邊界Productionpossibilitiesareinfluencedbybothlandandlabor(requirements):aTFQF+aTCQC≤TaLFQF+aLCQC≤LTotalamountoflandresourcesLandrequiredforeachunitoffoodproductionTotalunitsoffoodproductionLandrequiredforeachunitofclothproductionTotalunitsofclothproductionTotalamountoflaborresourcesLaborrequiredforeachunitoffoodproductionLaborrequiredforeachunitofclothproduction13Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.生產(chǎn)的可能性

ProductionPossibilitiesLet’sassumethateachunitofclothproductionuseslaborservicesintensivelyandeachunitoffoodproductionuseslandintensively:衣服為勞動(dòng)密集型；食物為土地密集型；aLC/aTC>aLF/aTFOraLC/aLF>aTC/aTFOr,weconsiderthetotalresourcesusedineachindustryandsaythatclothproductionislaborintensiveandfoodproductionislandintensiveifLC/TC>LF/TF.Thisassumptioninfluencestheslopeoftheproductionpossibilityfrontier:14Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.Fig.4-1:要素不可替代的生產(chǎn)可能性邊界TheProductionPossibilityFrontierWithoutFactorSubstitution15Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.生產(chǎn)的可能性

ProductionPossibilitiesTheopportunitycostofproducingclothintermsoffoodisnotconstantinthismodel:此模型中：機(jī)會(huì)成本不再不變。it’slowwhentheeconomyproducesalowamountofclothandahighamountoffood生產(chǎn)少量衣服，大量食物時(shí)，機(jī)會(huì)成本?。环粗痛?。it’shighwhentheeconomyproducesahighamountofclothandalowamountoffoodWhy?Becausewhentheeconomydevotesallresourcestowardstheproductionofasinglegood,themarginalproductivityofthoseresourcestendstobelowsothatthe(opportunity)costofproductiontendstobehighInthiscase,someoftheresourcescouldbeusedmoreeffectivelyintheproductionofanothergood16Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.生產(chǎn)的可能性

ProductionPossibilitiesTheabovePPFequationsdonotallowsubstitutionoflandforlaborservicesinproductionorviceversa.要素不可替代的假設(shè)。UnitfactorrequirementsareconstantalongeachlinesegmentofthePPF.Ifproducerscansubstituteoneinputforanotherintheproductionprocess,thenthePPFbecomescurved.要素可替代使得生產(chǎn)可能性邊界為曲線。Forexample,manyworkerscouldworkonasmallplotoflandorafewworkerscouldworkonalargeplotoflandtoproducethesameamountofoutput.Unitfactorrequirementscanveryateveryquantityofclothandfoodthatcouldbeproduced.17Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.Fig.4-2:要素可替代的生產(chǎn)可能性邊界

TheProductionPossibilityFrontierwithFactorSubstitution18Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.生產(chǎn)與價(jià)格

ProductionandPricesTheproductionpossibilityfrontierdescribeswhataneconomycanproduce,buttodeterminewhattheeconomydoesproduce,wemustdeterminethepricesofgoods.生產(chǎn)可能性邊界在那點(diǎn)進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)？?jī)r(jià)格決定產(chǎn)出。經(jīng)濟(jì)將在產(chǎn)值最大化處生產(chǎn)。Ingeneral,theeconomyshouldproduceatthepointthatmaximizesthevalueofproduction,V:V=PCQC+PFQFwherePCisthepriceofclothandPFisthepriceoffood.19Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.生產(chǎn)與價(jià)格

ProductionandPrices(cont.)Defineanisovalue

line

等價(jià)值線

asalinerepresentingaconstantvalueofproduction,V.V=PCQC+PFQFPFQF=V–PCQCQF=V/PF–(PC/PF)QCTheslopeofanisovaluelineis–(PC/PF)20Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.生產(chǎn)與價(jià)格

ProductionandPricesGivenpricesofoutput,apointononeisovaluelinerepresentsthemaximumvalueofproduction,sayatapointQ.經(jīng)濟(jì)在Q點(diǎn)生產(chǎn)，即生產(chǎn)可能性邊界與最大等價(jià)值線的切點(diǎn)。Atthatpoint,theslopeofthePPFequals–(PC/PF),sotheopportunitycostofclothequalstherelativepriceofcloth.Inotherwords,thetrade-offinproductionequalsthetrade-offaccordingtomarketprices.21Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.Fig.4-3:生產(chǎn)與價(jià)格

PricesandProduction22Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.要素價(jià)格與商品價(jià)格

FactorPrices,OutputPrices現(xiàn)實(shí)中，生產(chǎn)者會(huì)做出何種投入選擇？Producersmaychoosedifferentamountsoffactorsofproductionusedtomakeclothorfood.這取決于土地和勞動(dòng)的相對(duì)成本Theirchoicedependsonthewagerate,w,andthe(opportunity)costofusingland,therateratwhichlandcanbelenttoothersorrentedfromothers.Asthewagerateincreasesrelativetothelending/rentingrater,producersarewillingtouselesslaborservicesandmorelandintheproductionoffoodandcloth.Recallthatfoodproductionislandintensiveandclothproductionislaborintensive.23Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.//生產(chǎn)1卡路里糧食所有可能的投入組合生產(chǎn)1卡路里糧食投入的土地aTF（英畝）生產(chǎn)1卡路里糧食投入的勞動(dòng)aLF（小時(shí)）兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型圖4-4:糧食生產(chǎn)的要素投入組合InputPossibilitiesinFoodProduction24Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.CCFFWage-rentalratio工資-地租比率,w/rLand-laborratio,土地-勞動(dòng)力比率,T/L兩要素模型圖4-5:投入選擇和（取決于）要素價(jià)格FactorPricesandInputChoices25Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.斯托爾珀和薩繆爾森（WolfgangStolper&PaulSamuelson）26Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.斯托爾珀-薩繆爾森定理(效應(yīng)):Stolper-SamuelsonTheorem(effect):闡明商品價(jià)格與要素價(jià)格之間一一對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系在要素供給保持不變的條件下，若產(chǎn)品的相對(duì)價(jià)格上升，那么無(wú)論用哪種產(chǎn)品衡量，生產(chǎn)該產(chǎn)品所密集使用的要素的名義和實(shí)際收入就會(huì)提高，而其它要素的名義和實(shí)際收入就會(huì)減少。反之亦然。要素價(jià)格和商品價(jià)格

FactorPrices,OutputPrices,

27Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.SS棉布的相對(duì)價(jià)格,Relativepriceofcloth,PC/PF工資-地租比率,w/r兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型圖4-6:要素價(jià)格和產(chǎn)品價(jià)格FactorPricesandGoodsPrices假設(shè)：商品價(jià)格=商品成本。要素價(jià)格對(duì)商品的價(jià)格有多大的影響？勞動(dòng)密集型的產(chǎn)品的價(jià)格隨著勞動(dòng)相對(duì)成本的上升而上升。28Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.FFCCSS土地-勞動(dòng)比率,T/L棉布的相對(duì)價(jià)格,PC/PF工資-地租比率,w/r(PC/PF)1(TC/LC)2(TC/LC)1(TF/LF)2(TF/LF)1(w/r)2(w/r)1IncreasingIncreasing兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型(PC/PF)2Figure4-7:FromGoodsPricestoInputChoices29Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.如果棉布對(duì)于糧食的相對(duì)價(jià)格PC/PF上升，那么會(huì):提高工人收入相對(duì)于土地所有者的收入，w/r。在棉布和糧食的生產(chǎn)中，提高土地相對(duì)于勞動(dòng)的投入比率，從而提高勞動(dòng)相對(duì)于土地的邊際產(chǎn)出。由于用兩種產(chǎn)品衡量的實(shí)際工資的提高和實(shí)際地租的減少，增強(qiáng)了工人的購(gòu)買(mǎi)力而減弱土地所有者的購(gòu)買(mǎi)力。兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型30Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型Wehaveatheorythatpredictschangesinthedistributionofincomewhentherelativepriceofgoodschanges,saybecauseoftrade.Anincreaseintherelativepriceofcloth,PC/PF,ispredictedto:raiseincomeofworkersrelativetothatoflandowners,w/r.raisetheratiooflandtolaborservices,T/L,usedinbothindustriesandraisethemarginalproductivityoflaborinbothindustriesandlowerthemarginalproductivityoflandinbothindustries.raisetherealincomeofworkersandlowertherealincomeoflandowners.31Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.資源和產(chǎn)出Resourcesand

Output模型描述：商品價(jià)格要素供給產(chǎn)出資源的配置是如何決定的？Theallocationoffactorsusedinproductiondeterminethemaximumlevelofoutput(onthePPF).資源充分利用下，在棉布的相對(duì)價(jià)格和土地勞動(dòng)供給給定的條件下，就可以確定如何把這兩種資源分配到兩種產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)中去。兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型32Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.LFTFLCTC糧食生產(chǎn)中勞動(dòng)的使用量棉布生產(chǎn)中勞動(dòng)使用量OF增加增加增加增加棉布生產(chǎn)中土地使用量糧食生產(chǎn)中土地使用兩1FCOC資源與產(chǎn)出Resourcesand

Output圖4-8:資源的配置33Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.資源與產(chǎn)出Resourcesand

OutputHowdolevelsofoutputchangewhentheeconomy’sresourceschange?Ifweholdoutputpricesconstantastheamountofafactorofproductionincreases,thenthesupplyofthegoodthatusesthisfactorintensivelyincreasesandthesupplyoftheothergooddecreases.ThispropositioniscalledtheRybczynskitheorem.34Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.當(dāng)經(jīng)濟(jì)體的要素資源發(fā)生變化時(shí)，兩種產(chǎn)品的產(chǎn)出會(huì)發(fā)生怎樣的變化呢？雷布津斯基定理(效應(yīng)):在商品價(jià)格既定的條件下，如果一種生產(chǎn)要素量增加(T或L)，那么密集使用該要素的產(chǎn)品的供給會(huì)增加，而其他產(chǎn)品的供給會(huì)減少。反之亦然。兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型35Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.CL2FL2CT1FT1CF1L1FL1CT2FT2C1兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型圖4-9:土地供給增加AnIncreaseintheSupplyofLand糧食生產(chǎn)中勞動(dòng)使用量棉布生產(chǎn)中勞動(dòng)土地量增加增加增加增加腹脹生產(chǎn)中土地使用量糧食生產(chǎn)中土地使用量F2O1FO2F2OC36Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型雷布津斯基定理(效應(yīng)):Rybczynskitheorem在商品價(jià)格既定的條件下，如果一種生產(chǎn)要素量增加(T或L)，那么密集使用該要素的產(chǎn)品的供給會(huì)增加，而其他產(chǎn)品的供給會(huì)減少。P不變，土地供給增加1%，糧食產(chǎn)出增加>1%;理解此結(jié)論的另一種表述：生產(chǎn)可能性邊界。37Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.TT1TT2糧食產(chǎn)出,QF棉布產(chǎn)出,QC切線斜率=-PC/PF切線斜率=-PC/PF2Q2FQ2C1Q1FQ1C兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型圖4-10:要素和生產(chǎn)可能性ResourcesandProductionPossibilities38Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.土地（勞動(dòng)）供給的增加，會(huì)使生產(chǎn)可能性邊界向偏于糧食或棉布生產(chǎn)的方向擴(kuò)張。資源供給的變動(dòng)對(duì)生產(chǎn)可能性邊界的偏向性效應(yīng)（biasedexpansionofproductionpossibilities）是理解資源差異如何導(dǎo)致國(guó)際貿(mào)易的關(guān)鍵。結(jié)論：一個(gè)國(guó)家如果生產(chǎn)密集使用該國(guó)相對(duì)充裕要素的產(chǎn)品會(huì)更有效率。兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)模型39Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.赫克歇爾-俄林模型的假設(shè):兩個(gè)國(guó)家（本國(guó)和外國(guó)）有著:相同的偏好相同的技術(shù)不同的資源稟賦本國(guó)勞動(dòng)-土地比率高于外國(guó)每個(gè)國(guó)家使用兩種生產(chǎn)要素，有著相同的生產(chǎn)函數(shù)國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies40Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.相對(duì)價(jià)格與貿(mào)易模式要素充裕度當(dāng)且僅當(dāng)本國(guó)可獲得的勞動(dòng)總量與土地總量的比率高于外國(guó)的對(duì)應(yīng)比率時(shí)，即：L/T>L*/T*就可以說(shuō)相對(duì)外國(guó)而言，本國(guó)是一個(gè)勞動(dòng)力充裕的國(guó)家，相對(duì)本國(guó)而言，外國(guó)是一個(gè)土地充裕的國(guó)。Thedomesticcountryisabundantinlaborservicesandtheforeigncountryisabundantinland:L/T>L*/T*國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies41Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.相對(duì)價(jià)格與貿(mào)易模式要素充裕度例如:如果美國(guó)有80百萬(wàn)勞動(dòng)力和200百萬(wàn)英畝土地，而英國(guó)有20百萬(wàn)萬(wàn)勞動(dòng)力和20百萬(wàn)英畝土地，那么英國(guó)是勞動(dòng)充裕的而美國(guó)是土地充裕的。在這種情況下，本國(guó)的稀缺資源是土地，而外國(guó)的稀缺資源是勞動(dòng)。Becausethedomesticcountryisabundantinlaborservices,itwillberelativelyefficientatproducingclothbecauseclothislaborintensive.國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies42Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.當(dāng)本國(guó)與外國(guó)相互貿(mào)易時(shí)，它們的價(jià)格會(huì)趨同。本國(guó)棉布的相對(duì)價(jià)格會(huì)提高，外國(guó)棉布的相對(duì)價(jià)格會(huì)降低。在本國(guó)，棉布相對(duì)價(jià)格的提高會(huì)帶來(lái)棉布生產(chǎn)的增加和相對(duì)消費(fèi)的減少，所以本國(guó)成為棉布的出口方和糧食的進(jìn)口方。相反地，外國(guó)棉布相對(duì)價(jià)格的下降會(huì)使外國(guó)成為棉布的進(jìn)口方和糧食的出口方。國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies43Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.RDRSRS*123國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies圖4-11:

貿(mào)易使相對(duì)價(jià)格趨同TradeLeadstoaConvergenceofRelativePrices棉布的相對(duì)價(jià)格,PC/PF棉布的相對(duì)產(chǎn)量,QC+Q*C

QF+Q*F思考：貿(mào)易如何使價(jià)格趨同？理清：價(jià)格、生產(chǎn)和消費(fèi)的關(guān)系44Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.TradeintheHeckscher-OhlinModel(cont.)Sinceclothisalaborintensivegood,thedomesticcountry’sPPFwillallowahigherratioofclothtofoodrelativetotheforeigncounty’sPPF.Ateachrelativeprice,thedomesticcountrywillproduceahigherratioofclothtofoodthantheforeigncountry.Thedomesticcountrywillhaveahigherrelativesupplyofcloththantheforeigncountry.45Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.TradeintheHeckscher-OhlinModel(cont.)LiketheRicardianmodel,theHeckscher-Ohlinmodelpredictsaconvergenceofrelativepriceswithtrade.Withtrade,therelativepriceofclothispredictedtoriseinthelaborabundant(domestic)countryandfallinthelaborscarce(foreign)country.Inthedomesticcountry,theriseintherelativepriceofclothleadstoariseintherelativeproductionofclothandafallinrelativeconsumptionofcloth;thedomesticcountrybecomesanexporterofclothandanimporteroffood.Thedeclineintherelativepriceofclothintheforeigncountryleadsittobecomeanimporterofclothandanexporter

offood.46Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.貿(mào)易模式一個(gè)國(guó)家不存在貿(mào)易，消費(fèi)的價(jià)值必須等于生產(chǎn)出來(lái)的價(jià)值。（D消費(fèi)，Q生產(chǎn)）

DC=QCDF=QF國(guó)際貿(mào)易使得一個(gè)國(guó)家可以消費(fèi)不同于制造品和食品組合。一個(gè)國(guó)家不可能支出大于消費(fèi)。

PCDC+PFDF=PCQC+PFQF

DF-

QF=PC/PF(

QC-DC)(3-9)國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies47Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.貿(mào)易模式DF-

QF=PM/PF(

QC-DC)(3-9)DF-

QF糧食進(jìn)口量；

QC-DC棉布（制造品）出口量表明：一個(gè)國(guó)家能夠進(jìn)口的產(chǎn)品是有限的，收到了其出口產(chǎn)品數(shù)量的限制。稱：等式（3-9）為預(yù)算約束（budgetconstraint）國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies48Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.預(yù)算約束線(斜率=-PC/PF，即棉布相對(duì)價(jià)格）棉布消費(fèi)量,DC

棉布生產(chǎn)量,QC

糧食的消費(fèi)量,DF糧食的產(chǎn)量,QF生產(chǎn)可能性邊界相對(duì)價(jià)格與貿(mào)易模式圖4-12:參與貿(mào)易國(guó)家的預(yù)算約束線TheBudgetConstraintforaTradingEconomyQ1C1Q1F249Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.QJFQAFDAFDJFQACDACQJCDJC中國(guó)糧食進(jìn)口美國(guó)糧食進(jìn)口中國(guó)的棉布出口美國(guó)的棉布進(jìn)口棉布產(chǎn)量棉布產(chǎn)量糧食產(chǎn)量糧食產(chǎn)量中國(guó)預(yù)算約束線美國(guó)預(yù)算約束線貿(mào)易均衡TradingEquilibrium圖4-13:貿(mào)易均衡TradingEquilibrium50Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.TradeintheHeckscher-OhlinModel(cont.)Aneconomyispredictedtoberelativelyefficientat(haveacomparativeadvantagein)producinggoodsthatareintensiveinitsabundantfactorsofproduction.Aneconomyispredictedtoexportgoodsthatareintensiveinitsabundantfactorsofproductionandimportgoodsthatareintensiveinitsscarcefactorsofproduction.ThispropositioniscalledtheHeckscher-Ohlintheorem51Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.赫克歇爾-俄林定理:一個(gè)國(guó)家會(huì)出口密集使用該國(guó)充裕要素的產(chǎn)品，進(jìn)口密集使用該國(guó)稀缺要素的產(chǎn)品。模型總結(jié)：本國(guó)假設(shè)是勞動(dòng)要素充裕，故其出口密集使用勞動(dòng)要素的產(chǎn)品即出口棉布；外國(guó)是土地充裕型國(guó)家，故其出口密集使用土地要素的產(chǎn)品即出口糧食。國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies52Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.貿(mào)易和收入分配貿(mào)易導(dǎo)致相對(duì)價(jià)格趨同。對(duì)兩個(gè)國(guó)家，相對(duì)價(jià)格的改變對(duì)勞動(dòng)和土地的相對(duì)收入會(huì)有重要影響：在本國(guó),棉布的相對(duì)價(jià)格上升，勞動(dòng)力所有者的福利狀況改善而土地所有者的福利狀況惡化。在外國(guó)，棉布的相對(duì)價(jià)格下降，勞動(dòng)力所有者的福利狀況惡化而土地所有者的福利狀況改善國(guó)內(nèi)充裕要素的所有者從貿(mào)易中獲利，而稀缺要素的所有者因貿(mào)易而受損國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies53Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.思考：根據(jù)貿(mào)易和收入分配理論，試分析，美國(guó)的高技術(shù)工人充裕，而低技術(shù)工人稀缺，國(guó)際貿(mào)易以后，將對(duì)美國(guó)的這兩個(gè)群體的收入分配產(chǎn)生哪些影響？輪胎特保案無(wú)縫鋼管雙反調(diào)查54Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.收入分配和貿(mào)易所得國(guó)際貿(mào)易使制造品對(duì)糧食的相對(duì)價(jià)格發(fā)生了變化，這是評(píng)定貿(mào)易對(duì)特定集團(tuán)影響的關(guān)鍵。

結(jié)論：1.貿(mào)易使出口部門(mén)特定要素的所有者受益，與進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品競(jìng)爭(zhēng)部門(mén)特定要素的所有者受損。2.貿(mào)易對(duì)流動(dòng)要素所有者的影響不確定。對(duì)日本的分析，資本所有者↑土地所有者↓工人—對(duì)美國(guó)的分析，資本所有者↓土地所有者↑工人—55Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.如果要那些從貿(mào)易中獲利的人補(bǔ)償那些在貿(mào)易中受損者的損失，他們是否還會(huì)覺(jué)得有利可圖？如果答案使肯定的，那么貿(mào)易對(duì)每一個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)都是一種潛在獲益資源。圖形分析——4-14國(guó)家總能從貿(mào)易中受益，其基本原因就是貿(mào)易擴(kuò)大了一個(gè)國(guó)家消費(fèi)品的選擇范圍。選擇范圍的擴(kuò)大意味著總能找到一種收入再分配的方法使每一個(gè)人都可能從貿(mào)易中獲利。收入分配和貿(mào)易所得56Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.要素價(jià)格均等化FactorPriceEqualization在沒(méi)有貿(mào)易的情況下，本國(guó)的勞動(dòng)力的收益會(huì)比國(guó)外的勞動(dòng)力的收益少，而本國(guó)土地的收益會(huì)比國(guó)外土地的收益多。要素價(jià)格均等化定理:國(guó)際貿(mào)易會(huì)使國(guó)家間同類(lèi)要素的相對(duì)和絕對(duì)收益實(shí)現(xiàn)完全均等化。這意味著國(guó)際貿(mào)易可替代要素的國(guó)際流動(dòng)性。國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies57Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.在現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中，國(guó)家貿(mào)易已經(jīng)使不同國(guó)家間同類(lèi)要素的價(jià)格實(shí)現(xiàn)均等化了嗎？隨意考察一下就可清楚表明回答是否定的。例如:醫(yī)生、工程師、技術(shù)人員、機(jī)械師以及勞動(dòng)力所有者的工資在美國(guó)和德國(guó)與在韓國(guó)和墨西哥相比要高。在這樣的情況下，與其說(shuō)國(guó)際貿(mào)易完全消除了，還不如說(shuō)國(guó)際貿(mào)易減弱了國(guó)家間同類(lèi)要素收益的差異來(lái)的更實(shí)際一點(diǎn)。國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies58Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies表4-1:各國(guó)工資率的比較(美國(guó)=100)59Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.以下三個(gè)對(duì)預(yù)期要素價(jià)格均等化至關(guān)重要的前提假設(shè)在現(xiàn)實(shí)中是不成立的:兩個(gè)國(guó)家同時(shí)生產(chǎn)兩種相同的產(chǎn)品兩個(gè)國(guó)家的生產(chǎn)技術(shù)相同貿(mào)易使兩個(gè)國(guó)家的產(chǎn)品價(jià)格相同要素價(jià)格均等化定理沒(méi)有說(shuō)明的一點(diǎn)是國(guó)際貿(mào)易會(huì)消除或減少單位資本收入的國(guó)際間差異。國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies60Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.貿(mào)易與短期中的收入分配現(xiàn)實(shí)中，不同產(chǎn)業(yè)同種要素報(bào)酬短期內(nèi)差異很大。因?yàn)楫a(chǎn)業(yè)要素流動(dòng)很耗時(shí)。長(zhǎng)期中要素充分流動(dòng)，要素報(bào)酬才會(huì)均等化特定要素（Specificfactors）被鎖定在產(chǎn)業(yè)的中的要素，短期中很多要素是特定要素。區(qū)分長(zhǎng)短期很重要。假設(shè)：貿(mào)易導(dǎo)致棉布相對(duì)價(jià)格下降，則短期：棉布行業(yè)的土地所有者受損，糧食行業(yè)工人受益；長(zhǎng)期：有利土地所有者，工人受損。國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies61Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.特定要素模型與赫克歇爾-俄林模型在收入分配效應(yīng)方面存在異同：同：進(jìn)口競(jìng)爭(zhēng)產(chǎn)業(yè)特定要素所有者受損。異：生產(chǎn)要素對(duì)某個(gè)產(chǎn)業(yè)的特定性通常是一個(gè)短期問(wèn)題例如:棉布的生產(chǎn)商不會(huì)一夜之間成為計(jì)算機(jī)生產(chǎn)商,但是只要有足夠的時(shí)間，美國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)可以使衰落產(chǎn)業(yè)部門(mén)的工人轉(zhuǎn)移到新興產(chǎn)業(yè)部門(mén)中去。相反，貿(mào)易對(duì)土地、勞動(dòng)和資本收入分配的影響基本上是長(zhǎng)期且持久的。國(guó)際貿(mào)易對(duì)兩要素經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響

effectsofinternationalTradebetweenTwo-factorEconomies62Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.案例1-國(guó)際貿(mào)易是否增加了美國(guó)的工資差別在過(guò)去的20年間，國(guó)際貿(mào)易是否增加工廠美國(guó)以及其他工業(yè)國(guó)家熟練工人和非熟練工人之間的工資差別？國(guó)際貿(mào)易是否是主要原因？在1979-1993年間，美國(guó)高中畢業(yè)生和平均真實(shí)工資下降了20%多，大學(xué)畢業(yè)生的工資則上漲了11%，這導(dǎo)致熟練工人和非熟練工人間真實(shí)工資差別的大幅度增加。根據(jù)另一項(xiàng)研究，1979年美國(guó)大學(xué)畢業(yè)生只比高中畢業(yè)生高21%，到2002年，這一差別擴(kuò)大到44%。問(wèn)題：國(guó)際貿(mào)易在多大程度上導(dǎo)致了這一差別的增加？63Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.案例1-國(guó)際貿(mào)易是否增加了美國(guó)的工資差別工資差異原因影響程度(%)技術(shù)改進(jìn)37.7貿(mào)易10.1停滯的最低工資7.2工會(huì)削弱4.4移民2.9無(wú)法解釋的原因37.7美國(guó)工資差異的原因64Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.案例2-工業(yè)國(guó)家真實(shí)工資水平的接近發(fā)達(dá)工業(yè)國(guó)家制造業(yè)的實(shí)際工資與美國(guó)實(shí)際小時(shí)工資的百分比（%）國(guó)家1959年1970年1983年1990年2000年日本1124518696意大利2342627985法國(guó)27416210291英國(guó)2935538584德國(guó)295684142140加拿大4257758490未加權(quán)平均2743659798美國(guó)10010010010010065Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.案例3-中美貿(mào)易技術(shù)組(關(guān)鍵產(chǎn)業(yè))中國(guó)對(duì)美國(guó)出口%美國(guó)對(duì)中國(guó)出口%雜志、輪胎與計(jì)算機(jī)設(shè)備4.87.7客機(jī)及零部件、工業(yè)無(wú)機(jī)物2.648.8機(jī)械、渦輪機(jī)、油脂和石油3.921.3水泥、非電力探測(cè)錘和加熱設(shè)備11.54.3手表、計(jì)時(shí)器、玩具和運(yùn)動(dòng)品18.96.3木制品、鼓風(fēng)爐、生鐵8.21.3造船和修船、家具和設(shè)備4.12.8香煙、摩托、鋼鐵鑄造5.21.8編織、羊毛、皮革加工和制成品17.20.4童裝、非橡膠鞋23.55.266Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.H-O理論-案例國(guó)家或地區(qū)資本熟練工人非熟練工人總資源美國(guó)20.819.42.65.6歐盟20.713.35.36.9日本10.58.01.62.9加拿大2.01.70.40.6經(jīng)合組織其他國(guó)家5.02.62.02.2墨西哥2.31.21.41.4拉丁美洲其他地區(qū)6.43.75.35.1中國(guó)內(nèi)地8.321.730.428.4印度3.07.115.313.7中國(guó)香港、韓國(guó)、臺(tái)灣和新加坡2.83.70.91.4亞洲其他地區(qū)3.45.39.58.7東歐（包括俄羅斯）6.23.88.47.6石油輸出國(guó)組織6.24.47.16.7世界其他地區(qū)2.54.010.08.9總計(jì)100.0100.0100.0100.0不同國(guó)家地區(qū)資源稟賦的占有率(%)67Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.案例分析：貿(mào)易加速收入不均？

DoesTradeIncreaseIncomeInequality?Overthelast40years,countrieslikeSouthKorea,Mexico,andChinahaveexportedtotheU.S.goodsintensiveinunskilledlabor(ex.,clothing,shoes,toys,assembledgoods).Atthesametime,incomeinequalityhasincreasedintheU.S.,aswagesofunskilledworkershavegrownslowlycomparedtothoseofskilledworkers.Didtheformertrendcausethelattertrend?68Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.案例分析：貿(mào)易加速收入不均？

DoesTradeIncreaseIncomeInequality?TheHeckscher-Ohlinmodelpredictsthatownersofabundantfactorswillgainfromtradeandownersofscarcefactorswilllosefromtrade.Butlittleevidencesupportingthispredictionexists.Accordingtothemodel,achangeinthedistributionofincomeoccursthroughchangesinoutputprices,butthereisnoevidenceofachangeinthepricesofskill-intensivegoodsrelativetopricesofunskilled-intensivegoods.69Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.案例分析：貿(mào)易加速收入不均？

DoesTradeIncreaseIncomeInequality?Accordingtothemodel,wagesofunskilledworkersshouldincreaseinunskilledlaborabundantcountriesrelativetowagesofskilledlabor,butinsomecasesthereversehasoccurred:WagesofskilledlaborhaveincreasedmorerapidlyinMexicothanwagesofunskilledlabor.ButcomparedtotheU.S.andCanada,Mexicoissupposedtobeabundantinunskilledworkers.Evenifthemodelwereexactlycorrect,tradeisasmallfractionoftheU.S.economy,soitseffectsonU.S.pricesandwagespricesshouldbesmall.70Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.貿(mào)易中有贏家也有輸家。再論貿(mào)易利得貿(mào)易利得的再計(jì)算。福利的主觀色彩。如果讓貿(mào)易受益者補(bǔ)償貿(mào)易損失者，如果依然覺(jué)得有利可圖，則貿(mào)易對(duì)每個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)都是一種潛在獲益資源。（見(jiàn)圖4-14）現(xiàn)實(shí)中，受益者與受損者同時(shí)存在，這也是自由貿(mào)易遲遲不能實(shí)現(xiàn)的重要原因。貿(mào)易中的政治經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)：初步介紹

thePoliticalEconomyofTrade:apreliminaryview71Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.預(yù)算線(斜率=-PC/PF)PP棉布的消費(fèi)量,DC棉布的產(chǎn)量,QC糧食的消費(fèi)量,DF糧食的產(chǎn)量,QFQ1CQ1F12圖4-14:貿(mào)易擴(kuò)大了一國(guó)的消費(fèi)可能性

TradeExpandstheEconomy’sConsumptionPossibilities72Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.貿(mào)易中有贏家也有輸家。最優(yōu)的貿(mào)易政策政府必須在一個(gè)人的受益和另一個(gè)人的損失之間進(jìn)行權(quán)衡。有些集團(tuán)已經(jīng)相對(duì)貧困，需要特殊的關(guān)照(例如，美國(guó)的鞋子和服裝的工人)。大多數(shù)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家仍然會(huì)或多或少得贊同自由貿(mào)易。要切實(shí)理解貿(mào)易政策是怎樣被指定的，就必須了解貿(mào)易政策的真正動(dòng)機(jī)。貿(mào)易中的政治經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)：初步介紹

thePoliticalEconomyofTrade:apreliminaryview73Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.收入分配和貿(mào)易政策

IncomeDistributionandTradePolicy受損集團(tuán)不遺余力的游說(shuō)政府貿(mào)易受益者的集中程度，對(duì)情況的掌握程度，以及組織程度都不如那些貿(mào)易受損者。例子：美國(guó)制糖業(yè)的消費(fèi)者和生產(chǎn)者

貿(mào)易中的政治經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)：初步介紹

thePoliticalEconomyofTrade:apreliminaryview74Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.收入分配和貿(mào)易政策

IncomeDistributionandTradePolicyThereisapoliticalbiasintradepolitics:potentiallosersfromtradearebetterpoliticallyorganizedthanthewinnersfromtrade.Lossesareusuallyconcentratedamongafew,butgainsareusuallydispersedamongmany.Eachofyoupaysabout$8/yeartorestrictimportsofsugar,andthetotalcostofthispolicyisabout$2billion/year.Thebenefitsofthisprogramtotalabout$1billion,butthisamountgoestorelativelyfewsugarproducers.75Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.收入分配和貿(mào)易政策

IncomeDistributionandTradePolicyChangesinincomedistributionoccurwitheveryeconomicchange,notonlyinternationaltrade.Changesintechnology,changesinconsumerpreferences,exhaustionofresourcesanddiscoveryofnewonesallaffectincomedistribution.EconomistsputmostoftheblameontechnologicalchangeandtheresultingpremiumpaidoneducationasthemajorcauseofincreasingincomeinequalityintheUS.Itwouldbebettertocompensatethelosersfromtrade(oranyeconomicchange)thanprohibittrade.Theeconomyasawholedoesbenefitfromtrade.76Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.對(duì)赫克歇爾-俄林模型的實(shí)證檢驗(yàn)

EmpiricalEvidenceoftheHeckscher-OhlinModel美國(guó)數(shù)據(jù)TestsonUSdataLeontieffoundthatU.S.exportswerelesscapital-intensivethanU.S.imports,eventhoughtheU.S.isthemostcapital-abundantcountryintheworld:Leontiefparadox.全球數(shù)據(jù)TestsonglobaldataBowen,Leamer,andSveikauskastestedtheHeckscher-Ohlinmodelondatafrom27countriesandconfirmedtheLeontiefparadoxonaninternationallevel.Testsonmanufacturingdatabetweenlow/middleincomecountriesandhighincomecountries.Thisdatalendsmoresupporttothetheory.77Copyright?2009PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.對(duì)赫克歇爾-俄林模型的檢驗(yàn)美國(guó)數(shù)據(jù)里昂惕夫悖論Leontiefparadox里昂惕夫發(fā)現(xiàn)，雖然美國(guó)是世界上資本最充裕的國(guó)家，但是美國(guó)的出口產(chǎn)品的資本密集度要低于美國(guó)進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品的資本密集度。全球數(shù)據(jù)波文、利莫、斯維考斯克斯的一項(xiàng)研究利用大量國(guó)家的數(shù)據(jù)檢驗(yàn)了赫克歇爾-俄林模型。.該項(xiàng)研