詞匯學復習資料

-----WORD格式--可編輯--專業(yè)資料-----Episode1:AGeneralSurveyofWordWord---Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction.Vocabulary---Vocabularyismostcommonlyusedtorefertothesumtotalofallthewordsofalanguage.Itcanalsorefertoallthewordsofagivendialect,agivenbook,agivensubjectandallthewordspossessedbyanindividualpersonaswellasallthewordscurrentinaparticularperiodoftimeinhistory.ThegeneralestimateofthepresentdayEnglishvocabularyisover2millionwords.Contentword(notionalword)---denoteclearnotionsandthusareknownasnotionalwords.Theyincludenouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsandnumerals.Borrowedwords(loanwords,borrowing)---wordstakenoverfromforeignlanguageareknownasborrowedwordsorloanwordsorborrowingsinsimpleterms.Accordingtothedegreeofassimilationandmannerofborrowing,wecanbringtheloanwordsunder4classes:Denizens,Aliens,translationloans,SemanticloansSemanticloans---arenotborrowedwithreferencetotheform,buttheirmeaningareborrowedfromanotherlanguage.Inotherwords,Englishhasborrowedanewmeaningforanexistingwordinlanguage.e.g.stupidolddumpReference-therelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheworld.Bymeansofreference,aspeakerindicateswhichthingsintheworld(includingpersons)arebeingtalkedabout.Thereferenceofawordtoathingoutsidethelanguageisarbitraryandconventional.Thisconnectionistheresultofgeneralizationandabstraction.Althoughreferenceisabstract,yetwiththehelpofcontext,itcanrefertosomethingspecific.Concept-whichbeyondlanguageistheresultofhumancognitionreflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.Itisn,taffectedbylanguage.Meaningandconceptarecloselyconnectedbutnotidentical.Meaningbelongstolanguage,soisrestrictedtolanguageuse.Aconceptcanhaveasmanyreferringexpressionsastherearelanguagesintheworld.Sense---denotestherelationshipinsidethelanguage.Everywordthathasmeaninghassense.Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.Whatistheimportanceofbasicwordstock?Thebasicwordstockisthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedovercenturiesandformsthecommoncoreofthelanguage,whichhasfivecharacteristics:allnationalcharacter,stability,productivity,polysemy,collocability.Whatarethecharacteristicsofassociativemeaning?Associativemeaningisthesecondarymeaningsupplementedtotheconceptualmeaning.Itisopen-endedandindeterminate.Itisliabletotheinfluenceofsuchfactorsasculture,experience,religion,geographicalregion,classbackground,education,etc.TellbrieflyaboutMartinJoos,theFiveClocks?Itsuggestsfivedegreesofformality:frozen,formal,consultative,casualandintimate.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning?Unlikelexicalmeaning,differentlexicalitems,whichhavedifferentlexicalmeanings,mayhavethesamegrammaticalmeaning.Ontheotherhand,thesamewordmayhavedifferentgrammaticalmeanings.Functionalwords,thoughhavinglittlelexicalmeaning,possessstronggrammaticalmeaningwhereas--完整版學習資料分享---------WORD格式--可編輯--專業(yè)資料-----contentwordshavebothmeanings,andlexicalmeaninginpartial.Lexicalandgrammaticalmeaningsmakeuptheword-meaning.Itisknownthatgrammaticalmeaningsurfacesonlyinuse.Butlexicalmeaningisconstantinallthecontentwordswithinorwithoutcontextasitisrelatedtothenotionthatthewordconveys.Episode2:MainCharacteristicsofEnglishVocabularyTheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamily---itisassumedthattheworldhasapproximately3,000(someputit5,000)languages,whichcanbegroupedintoroughly300languagefamiliesonthebasisofsimilaritiesintheirbasicwordstockandgrammar.ItismadeupofmostofthelanguageofEurope,theNeraEast,andIndiaEasternset:Balto-Slavic,Indo-Iranian,ArmenianandAlbanianWesternset:Celtic,Italic,Hellenic,Germanic.OldEnglish(450-1150)---The1stpeopleknowntoinhabitEnglandwereCelts,thelanguagewasCeltic.ThesecondlanguagewastheLatinoftheRomanLegions.AftertheRomans,theGermanictribescalledangles,SaxonsandJutesandtheirlanguage,Anglo-SaxondominatedandblottedouttheCeltic.NowpeoplerefertoAnglo-SaxonasoldEnglish.OldEnglishhasavocabularyofabout50,000to60,000words.ItwasahighlyinflectedlanguagejustlikemodernGerman.NormanConquest---theNormansinvadedEnglandfromFrancein1066.theNormanConqueststartedacontinualflowofFrenchwordsintoEnglish.NormanFrenchbecamethepolitespeech.75%ofthemarestillinusetoday.Thesituationof3languages(French,English,Latin)existingsimultaneouslycontinuedforoveracentury..Renaissance---IntheearlyperiodofmodernEnglish,EuropesawanewupsurgeoflearningancientGreekandRomanclassics.ThisisknowninhistoryastheRenaissance.LatinandGreekwererecognizedasthelanguageoftheWesternworld'sgreatliteraryheritageandofgreatscholarship.Revivingarchaicwords---wordsorformsthatwereonceincommonusebutarenowrestrictedonlytospecializedorlimiteduse.Theyarefoundmainlyinolderpoems,legaldocumentandreligiouswritingorspeech.ModernEnglish(1150-1500)---ModernEnglishbeganwiththeestablishmentofprintinginEnglish.Wordendingsweremostlylostwithjustafewexceptions.ModernEnglishisconsideredtobeananalyticlanguage.Whydowesay"Englishisaheavyborrower?"Pleasejustifyit.Englishisaheavyborrowerandhasadoptedwordsfromallothermajorlanguagesoftheworld.ItisestimatedthatEnglishborrowingsconstitute80%ofthemodernEnglishvocabulary.AsisstatedinEncyclopediaAmericana,"TheEnglishlanguagehasvastdebts.Inanydictionarysome80%oftheentriesareborrowed".eg.kowtoufromChinese,longtimenoseefromhaojiubujian(Chinese),theword"dream"originallymeant"joy"and"music",itsmodernmeaningwasborrowedlaterfromtheNorse.IntheMiddleEnglishPeriod,whatmadeFrenchadominantlanguageinEngland?In1066,inthehistoryofEngland,therewasNormanConquest.TheFrench-speakingNormansweretherulingclass.Frenchwasusedforallstateaffairsandformostsocialandculturalmatters.Therefore,thosewhoinpowerspokeFrench,thosewhowereliteratereadandwroteinFrench;andanyyoungmanwhosoughttoearnhislivingasascribelearnedLatinorFrenchbecausetherewasnomarketforsuchservicesinEnglish.TheNormanConqueststartedacontinualflowofFrenchwordsintoEnglish.Whathappenedinthemid-seventeenthcenturyinEngland?EnglandexperiencedtheBourgeoisRevolutionfollowedbytheIndustrialRevolutionandrosetobeagreateconomicpower.--完整版學習資料分享---------WORD格式--可編輯--專業(yè)資料-----Episode3:MorphologicalStructureofEnglishWordsMorpheme---Amorphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitofalanguage.(Thesmallestfunctionalunitinthecompositionofwords.)Morph---Amorphememustberealizedbydiscreteunits.Theseactualspokenminimalcarriersofmeaningaremorphs.Monomorphenicwords---morphemesarerealizedbysinglemorphs.Allomorph---Somemorphemesarerealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirposition.Suchalternativemorphsareallomorphemes.e.g.themorphemeofplurality(-s)hasanumberifallomorphemesindifferentsoundcontext,e.g.incats/s/,inbags/z/,inmatches/iz/.Freemorphemesorfreeroot---Themorphemeshavecompletemeaningandvanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences,e.g.cat,walk.Theyareidenticalwithrootwords.morphemeswhichareindependentofothermorphemesareconsideredtobefree.BoundMorphemes---Themorphemescannotoccurasseparatewords.Theyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwords,e.g.recollection(re+collect+ion)collect-freemorphemere-and-ionareboundmorphemes.(includingboundrootandaffix)Boundmorphemesarefoundinderivedwords.Boundroot---Aboundrootisthatpartofthewordthatcarriesthefundamentalmeaningjustlikeafreeroot.Unlikeafreeroot,itisaboundformandhastocombinewithothermorphemestomakewords.Take-dict-forexample:itconveysthemeaningof"sayorspeak"asaLatinroot,butnotasaword.Withtheprefixpre-(=before)weobtaintheverbpredictmeaning"tellbeforehand".Contradict“speakagainst”.BoundrootsareeitherLatinorGreek.Althoughtheyarelimitedinnumber,theirproductivepowerisamazing.Affixes---Affixesareformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomodifymeaningorfunction.Almostaffixesareboundmorphemes.Prefixes---Prefixesareaffixesthatcomebeforetheword,suchas,pre+war,sub+seaSuffixes---suffixesareaffixesthatcomeaftertheword,forinstance,blood+y.11.InflectionalmorphemesorInflectionalaffixes---Affixesattachestotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.Thenumberofinflectionalaffixesissmallandstable.DerivationalmorphemesorDerivationalaffixes---Derivationalaffixesareaffixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.Root---Arootisthebasicformofaword,whichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.(Whatremainsofawordaftertheremovalofallaffixes.).e.g.“internationalists”removinginter,-al-,-ist,-s,leavestherootnation.Stem---Aformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.E.g.“internationalists”,nationisarootandastemaswell.Astemmayconsistofasinglerootortworootsandarootplusanaffix.Whatarethedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixes?Affixesattachestotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.ModernEnglishisananalyticlanguage.Mostendingsarelost,leavingonlyafewinflectionalaffixes,suchaspluralformsofnouns-s(-es),andthecomparativeandsuperlativedegreeformsofadjectives:-er,-est.Derivationalaffixesareaffixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.Derivationalaffixescanbefurtherdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenrootandstem?Explainwithexamples.--完整版學習資料分享---------WORD格式--可編輯--專業(yè)資料-----Arootisthebasicformofaword,whichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.(Whatremainsofawordaftertheremovalofallaffixes.).e.g.“internationalists”removinginter-,-al-,-ist,-s,leavestherootnation.Astemisaformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.e.g.“internationalists”,nationisarootandastemaswell.Astemmayconsistofasinglerootortworootsandarootplusanaffix.Astemcanbearootoraformbiggerthanaroot.Episode4:MajorProcessesofWord-formationAffixation(Derivation)---theformationofwordsbyaddingwordformingorderivationalaffixestostems.Accordingtotheirposition,affixationfallsinto:prefixationandsuffixation.Prefixation---theformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestostems.Itdoesnotchangetheword-classofthestembutchangeitsmeaningSuffixation---Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestostems.Changethegrammaticalfunctionofstems(thewordclass).Suffixescanbegroupedonagrammaticalbasis.Adjectivesuffix---thesuffixcombineswithnounorverbtocreatedenominalordeverbalsuffixes.---adjsuffixCompounding(Composition-Compoundingisaprocessofword-formationbyjoiningtwoormorestems.Conversion(zero-derivation,functionalshift)---Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.Thesewordsarenewonlyinagrammaticalsense.Themostproductiveisbetweennounsandverbs.1.Howdoyoudistinguishcompoundsfromfreephrases?Compoundsdifferfromfreephrasesinthefollowingthreeaspects.Phoneticfeatures.Incompoundsthewordstressusuallyoccursonthefirstelementwhereasinnounphrasesthesecondelementisgenerallystressedifthereisonlyonestess.Semanticfeatures.Compoundsaredifferentfromfreephrasesinsemanticunity.Everycompoundshouldexpressasingleideajustasoneword.Grammaticalfeatures.Acompoundtendstoplayasinglegrammaticalroleinasentence.Episode5:TheMinorProcessesofWord-FormationDefinethefollowingtermsBlending---isthewordformationbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.Clipping---shortenalongerwordbycuttingapartoftheoriginandusingwhatremainsinstead.Peopletendtobeeconomicalinwritingandspeechtokeepupthetempoofnewlifestyle.Acronymy---istheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialphrasesandtechnicaltermsInitialisms---arewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordsandpronouncedasletters.It,soneofthewordformationsofacronymy.Acronyms---arewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordandpronouncedaswords..It,soneofthewordformationsofacronymy.--完整版學習資料分享----

-----WORD格式--可編輯--專業(yè)資料-----Back-formation---isaprocessofword-formationbywhichawordiscreatedbythedeletionofasupposedaffix.Itisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.Whatareneologisms?Giveoneexampletoillustratethem.Neologismsarenewly-createdwordsorexpressions,orwordsthathavetakenonnewmeanings.Theexamplesgoasfollows:"Theymisunderestimatedme.""Wedon,twanttogetdixie-chicked,oranythinglikethat,outofthegate.We,veinvestedtensofmillionsofdollarsinthemovie."dixie-chicked,tobecomethesubjectofridiculeandeconomiclossbyalienatingaconstituency.sniglet:aterminventedbycomedianRichHalltocharacterizea"wordthatshouldbeinthedictionary,butisn't."Afewexamples:doork,apersonwhoalwayspushesonadoormarked"pull"orviceversa.lotshock,theactofparkingyourcar,walkingaway,andthenwatchingitrollpastyou.pupkus,themoistresidueleftonawindowafteradogpressesitsnosetoit.daffynition:apuncoinedbyreinterpretinganexistingwordonthebasisthatitsoundslikeanotherword.UnderthenameUxbridgeEnglishDictionary,makingupdaffynitionsisagameontheBBCRadio4comedyquizshowI,mSorryIHaven,taClue.Afewexamples:antelope,torunoffwithyourmother,ssister.testicle,anexploratorytickle.boomerang,whatyousaytofrightenameringue.pasteurize,toofartosee.Formorethan20years,columnistBobLeveyofTheWashingtonPosthasbeeninvitingreaderstosubmitnewdefinitionsforpre-existingwords.Somememorablecontributions:circumvent(n.),theopeninginthefrontofboxershorts.coffee(n.),apersonwhoiscoughedupon.flabbergasted(adj.),appalledoverhowmuchweightyouhavegained.Frisbeetarianism(n.),thebeliefthat,whenyoudie,yoursoulfliesupontotheroofandgetsstuckthere.population(n.),thatnicesensationyougetwhendrinkingsoda.spatula(n.),afightamongvampires.testicle(n.),ahumorousquestiononanexam.WhatarethethreemainsourcesofnewEnglishwords?Threemainsourcesofnewwordsare:therapiddevelopmentofmodernscienceandtechnology;social,economicandpoliticalchanges;theinfluenceofotherculturesandlanguagesHowdoyouexplainthedifferencebetweenbackformationandsuffixation?Giveexampletoillustrateyourpoint.Back-formationisaprocessofword-formationbywhichawordiscreatedbythedeletionofasupposedaffix.Itisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.Asweknow,Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestostems,andback-formationisthereforethemethodofcreatingwordsbyremovingthesupposedsuffixes.Forexample,-erisanounsuffix,itisaddedtonounbaseenginetoproduceanewword-engineer.however,peoplemakecanmakeverbsbydroppingtheendingssuchas-orineditor,and-erinbutler.Thisishowwederiveeditandbutle.Theremovedsuffixesarenottruesuffixesbutinseparableparsofthewords.Episode6MotivationEpisode6Motivation--完整版學習資料分享---------WORD格式--可編輯--專業(yè)資料-----Motivation-accountsfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning.OnomatopoeicMotivation---thewordswhosesoundssuggesttheirmeaning.(Indicatetherelationshipbetweensoundandmeaning).Knowingthesoundsofthewordsmeansunderstandingthemeaning.Thesewordswerecreatedbyimitatingthenaturalsoundsornoises.Forexample,bang,ping-pang,crowbycocks,etc.MorphologicalMotivation-Compoundsandderivedwordsaremulti-morphemicwordsandthemeaningofmanywordsarethesumtotalofthemorphemescombined.(Indicatetherelationshipbetweenwordmeaningandeachmorphememeaning).Forinstance,airmailmeansSemanticMotivation---referstothementalassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaningofaword.Itexplainedtheconnectionbetweenliteralsenseandfigurativesenseofaword).EtymologicalMotivation---Thehistoryofthewordexplainsthemeaningoftheword.(Indicatetherelationshipbetweenwordmeaninganditsorigin).Episode7SemanticFeatures&ComponentialAnalysisGrammaticalmeaning---refertothatpartofthemeaningofthewordwhichindicatesgrammaticalconceptorrelationships,suchaspartofspeechofwords,singularandpluralmeaningsofnouns,tensemeaningofverbsandtheirinflectionalforms.Grammaticalmeaningbecomesimportantonlyusedinactualcontext.Lexicalmeaning---isconstantinallthewordswithinorwithoutcontextrelatedtothenotionthatthewordconveys.Ithastwocomponents,conceptualmeaningandassociativemeaning.Conceptualmeaning(denotativemeaning)---themeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformsthecoreofword-meaning.Itisconstantandrelativestable.Conceptualmeaningformsthebasisforcommunication.Episode8SemanticChangesThreemodesofvocabularydevelopmentCreation---theformationofnewwordsbyusingtheexistingmaterials,namelyroots,affixesandotherelements.(Thisisthemostimportantwayofvocabularyexpansion.)Semanticchange---anoldformwhichtakeonanewmeaningtomeetthenewneed.Borrowing---totakeinwordsfromotherlanguages.(particularlyinearliertime)Extension(generalization)---isatermreferringtothewideningofmeaning.Itisaprocessbywhichaword,whichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaning,hasnowbecomegeneralized.Narrowing(specialization)---isatermreferringtotheshrinkingofmeaning.Itisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense.Elevationoramelioration--referstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumblebeginningstopositionsofimportance.Degradationorpejorationofmeaning---Itisaprocesswherebywordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon-affectivewordscometobeusedinderogatorysenseTransfer-wordswhichwereusedtodesignateonthingbutlaterchangedtomeansomethingelse.1.Whatarethelinguisticfactorsthatcausechangesinmeaning?Internalfactorswithinthelanguagesystem,andtheinfluxofborrowing,analogy.Episode9PolysemyandHomonymyPolysemy-polysemyisacommonfeaturepeculiartoallnaturallanguagesthatonewordmayhavetwoormoresensesordifferentmeanings.--完整版學習資料分享---------WORD格式--可編輯--專業(yè)資料-----Twoapproaches:Diachronicapproach,Synchronicapproach.Radiation---isasemanticchangeinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsatthecenterandthesecondarymeaningsproceedoutofitineverydirectionlikerays.Concatenation-meaning“l(fā)inkingtogether”,isthesemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovesgraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshiftsuntil,inmanycases,thereisnotasignofconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandthatwhichtheternhadatthebeginning.Homonyms---aregenerallydefinedaswordsdifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenticalbothinsoundandspellingoridenticalonlyinsoundorspelling.PerfectHomonyms---arewordsidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeaning.e.g.bank(financialinstitution)andbank(edgeofariver)Homographs---arewordsidenticalonlyinspellingbutdifferentinsoundandmeaning.e.g.sow/sowHomophones(mostcommon)---arewordsidenticalonlyinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaning.e.g.dear/dearright/riteson/sunHyponymy---dealswiththerelationshipofsemanticinclusion.Thatis,themeaningofamorespecificwordisincludedinthatofanothermoregeneralword.Thesespecificwordsareknownashyponyms(下義詞).Forinstance,tulipandrosearehyponymsofflower.Thegeneralwordfloweristhesuperordinateterm(上義詞)andthespecificonestulipandrosearethesubordinateterms(下義詞).Whatisthedifferencebetweentheprocessofradiationandconcatenation?Inradiation,themeaningsareindependentofoneother,butcanallbetracedbacktothecentralmeaning.Ifwegiveagraphicdescriptionofthemeaningsofface,itwouldlookverymuchlikeawheelofthebicycle.Incon