知識(shí)管理 與組織創(chuàng)建理論

1/1知識(shí)管理與組織創(chuàng)建理論StrategicknowledgeManagement

TermPaper

AnUnderstandingtowardOrganizationalKnowledgeCreationTheory

Tong,Hui-Eng（東惠瑛）

R48941156

Knowledgeisrecognizedasakeysourceforsustainingcompetitiveadvantage(Kogut,

andZander,1992,ConnerandPrahalad,1996;Grant,1996;Hansen,etal.,1999).Thewidelyheldbeliefthattherichestresourceoftoday?sorganizationsistheknowledgeresidingindividuallyandcollectivelyamongtheiremployeesreflectstheimportanceofprocessesforpromotingthecreation,sharing,andleveragingofknowledge(Becerra-FernandezandSabherwal,2001).Inotherwords,organizationisviewedasaknowledge-creatingentityorsystematicdevice(Nonakaetal.,2000;Grant,1996;Fang,2008).Organizationalknowledgecreationistheprocessofmakingavailableandamplifyingknowledgecreatedbyindividualsaswellascrystallizingandconnectingittoanorganization?sknowledgesystem(Nonakaetal.,2006).Overthelast15years,theorganizationalknowledgecreationhasdevelopedrapidlyinacademiaandbeenbroadlydiffusedinmanagementpractice.Thisessaysummariestheconceptsoforganizationalknowledge,basedonthearticleof“OrganizationalKnowledgeCreationTheory:EvolutionaryPathsandFutureAdvances”writtenbyNonakaetal.,2006.

OrganizationalknowledgeCreationTheory

Twofundamentalelementsoforganizationalknowledgecreationtheory:

1.Epistemology

●Knowledgeisjustifiedtruebelief.

●Individualsjustifythetruthfulnessoftheirobservationsbasedontheir

observationsoftheworld.

●Justificationhingesonuniqueviewpoints,personalsensibilityand

experience(NonakaandTakeuchi,1995)

●Knowledgeisembodiedintheindividual,andisthereforehistory

dependent,contextsensitive,specific(Varelaetal,1991).

●Knowledgeisthecapacitytodefineasituationandactaccordingly(Stehr,1992,

1994;vonKroghetal,2000).

Knowledgeisorientedtowardsdefiningasituationorproblemsoastoacton

it.(Varelaetal,1991;NewellandSimon1972).

●Knowledgeisexplicitandtacit(Nonaka,1991).

Knowledgeincludesexplicitaspects(suchaslanguageanddocumentation),

andtacitaspects(suchasexperienceandskills)

2.KnowledgeConversion

●Knowledgecreationasacontinuousprocess

Knowledgecreationisajourneyfrom“beingtobecoming?(Nonakaetal.,2006).

●Individualsenhancesthecapacitytodefineasituationorproblem,and

applyhisorherknowledgesoastoactandspecificallysolvetheproblem.

●Intheorganization,knowledge…become?or…expands?throughafour-stage

conversionprocess(‘SECI’).

●Organizationalknowledgecreationasaconstructcomprisingknowledge

conversionbymeansofexternalization,internalization,socializationand

combination(Nonakaetal.,1994).

●Theconceptof…knowledgeconversion?raisestwoimportantconsiderations.

●Knowledgesystem

●Theknowledgesystemcapturestheorganization

?sgloballearning.

●Theoutcomeoforganizationknowledgecreationisre-categorizedand

re-contextualizedthisknowledgelayeroftheorganization.

●Theknowledgelayerisembeddedinthecorporatevision(whichoutlines

thefieldsofdevelopmentfortheorganization)andtheorganizationalculture(thatorientsindividuals?choices,mindsets,andactions.

Whereasthecorporatevisionandtheorganizationalcultureprovidetheknowledgebasefromwhichto…tap?tacitknowledge,technologytapstheexplicitknowledgeintheorganization(NonakaandTakeuchi,1995).

●Theknowledgesystemincorporateswhatistermed…knowledge

managementsystems?.

Knowledgemanagementsystemsareoftenequatedwiththeinformationsystemsthatassistknowledgeconversionorinformationprocessesintheorganization.

●Socialjustification

●Theexpansionofknowledgeintheorganizationthroughconversion

makesjustificationasocialprocess.

●Socialjustificationshouldbeunderstoodasamechanismbywhichthe

organizationtradesoffinnovationagainstcostcontainmentinknowledge

creation.

●Knowledgecreationcanberegardedasmovingupthroughdifferent

organizationallevel,fromtheindividualtothecommunitiesandthelarger

networks,anditspanssectional,departmental,divisionalandorganizational

boundaries(Swanetal.,1999).

PathsintheEvolutionofOrganizationalKnowledgeCreation

TheoryandResearch

Thedefinitionofknowledgeandtheconceptofknowledgeconversionpromptedacademicworksonorganization-enablingconditionsandthecontextforknowledgecreation.

1.Organization-EnablingConditionsandBa

●Acentralpurposeoforganizationalknowledgecreationtheoryistoidentify

conditionsenablingknowledgecreationinordertoimproveinnovationand

learning(Nonaka,1994;NonakaandTakeuchi,1995;vonKroghetal,2000)

●Organizationalknowledgecreationiscontextdependent.

●Thecontextforknowledgecreationisba(NonakaandKonno,1998).

●Baisasharedspaceforemergingrelationships.

●Toparticipateinbameanstobecomeengagedinknowledgecreation,

dialogue,adapttoandshapepractices,andsimultaneouslytranscendone?s

ownlimitedperspectiveorboundaries.

●Variousbacharacteristicsareparticularlysuitedfortheconversionof

knowledge(NonakaandKonno,1998).

Theawarenessofaba?sparticularcharacteristicsandtheirsupportenable

successfulknowledgecreation(e.g.NonakaandKonno,1998).

●Organizationalknowledgecreationtheoryepitomizesadynamicview:

Theorganizationmightbeawell-designedengineforinformationprocessing,butmoreimportantly,itassiduouslybecomesacontextinwhich

knowledge—engine?sfuel—iscreated.

●Relationshipsamongindividualsinbaimpactorganizationalknowledge?s

synthesisandexpansion.

●knowledgecreationismoreeffectivewhenrelationshipsexhibitahigh

degreeofcarefortheother(mutualtrust,activeempathy,accesstohelp,

leniencyinjudgement,andcourage),particularlyintheoriginatingbain

whichindividualssharetacitknowledge(vonKrogh1998).

Basedontheconstructofcareasaconditionforknowledgecreation,ZarragaandBonache(2005)developedaframeworkthatlinkedteam

atmospheretoknowledgetransferandcreation.Thestudyconfirmedthat

high-carerelationshipsfavourboththetransferandcreationofknowledge.

●Varioustypesofinformationsystemssupportbaandenableorganizational

knowledgecreation(e.g.AlaviandLeidner,2001).

ChouandWang(2003)developedandtestedamodeloforganizationallearningmechanismsandorganizationalinformationmechanismsof

compositeeffectsonorganizationalknowledgecreation.Theyidentified

severalwaysinwhichinformationsystemscanfacilitateandsupportba.

2.KnowledgeVisionandActivism

●Theconceptofbahighlightedtwocriticalchallengesfororganizational

knowledgecreationtheory.

●Whetherornottheorganizationissuccessfulatcreatingknowledgehinges

onabroadersetoffactorsthanmerelytheknowledgeoutcomeofteam

work(ZarragaSwanetal.,1999;Grant,2001;Goodall&Roberts,

2003).

Howtheorganizationcoordinatesandsharesknowledgemorebroadly

matters.

●Bamighthaveeithernegative(Zaleznick,1985)orpositiveeffecton

knowledgecreationingroups(Nonakaetal.,2006).

●Knowledgeactivism(vonKroghetal.1997,2000)

●Variousformsofknowledgeactivism(e.g.CEO,projectmanager,

middle-levelmanager)performsimilarroles:theycatalyseandcoordinate

knowledgecreationandtransfer,andcommunicatefutureprospects.

(i)Asoutsiders,knowledgeactivistsprovidenewinputforknowledge

creation.

knowledgeactivistsbringdifferentknowledgesets,andintroduced…creativeabrasion?(Leonard-Barton1995)thatleadstoconflictingideas

butalsonewpossibilitiestocreateknowledge.

(ii)Knowledgeactivistscoordinateandtransferknowledge,byspanningtheboundariesofteamsandcommunities(e.g.Quinnetal.1997,Wenger

2000,Newelletal.2002).

(iii)Knowledgeactivistscommunicatefutureprospectsandsoprovideanoveralldirectionforknowledge

●Knowledgevisions

●Duetothedispersednatureororganizationalknowledgecreation,theneed

forthecoordinationofteamsandknowledgetransfer,thetheoryof

organizationalknowledgecreationemphasizesthedevelopmentof

…knowledgevisions?(NonakavonKroghetal.,2000;Nonakaet

al.,2005;GirouxOsterlohandFrey;2000)

●…Hypertextorganization?grantedorganizationsthehighcapacityrequiredto

solvecoordinationproblemsinherentinknowledgecreation(Nonaka,1994;

NanakaHuber,1991;March,1991;WalshWerr&

Stjernberg,2003).

4.Leadership

●Leadership?sprimaryfunctionistomaintainefficiencyinthebusinesssystem

layer,thusenablingknowledgecreationintheprojectsystemlayer,while

shaping,maintainingandsecuringtheknowledgesystemlayer.

●Inkeepingwiththeconceptoftheheterarchyform,leadershipisdistributedin

theorganizationthatsupportstheflowofknowledgefromthemiddletothe

topanddowntotherestoftheorganization(NonakaandTakeuchi,1995).

●Middlemanagerspromoteorganizationalknowledgebyfacilitatingallfour

modesofknowledgeconversion.

●Leadershipisaboutenablingknowledgecreation,—notcontrollingand

directingit.

Topmanagersandmiddlemanagersareengagedinacycleofformulatingandreformulatingvisionsthatexplorethe…newterritory?

envisionedbythetop,whileensuringthatthevisionsandthe…old?frontline

realitiesfit.

●Theorganizationisinastateofbecoming,movingbetweencyclesof

sense-givingfromthetopandsense-makinginthemiddle,tosense-givinginthemiddleandsense-makingatthetop(GioiaandChittipeddi,1991).

5.TheNatureoftheFirmandKnowledgeStrategy

●TheNatureoftheFirm

●Firmsdifferbecausetheywantandstrivetodiffer,andfirstandforemost,

becausetheycannotescapetheidiosyncrasyoforganizationalknowledge

creation.

Duetotheintersubjectivenatureofknowledge,firmsdifferbecauseorganizationalknowledgecreationgivesrisetouniqueorganizational

knowledgesystems.

●Organizationalknowledgecreationtheoryproposesconceptsand

relationshipsregardingorganizationalenablingconditionsandba,

organizationalforms,aswellasleadershipthatexplaintheconundrumof

firmdifferences.

●Knowledgestrategy

●Thefirm?sknowledgesystemlayerrelatestofirmprofit,directly(DeCarolis

andDeeds1999)orindirectly(Drogeetal.2003),givingrisetostrategic

considerations.

●Knowledgeassets

●Knowledgeassetsaretheoutcomesofknowledgecreatingprocesses

throughthedialoguesandpracticesinba,andareusedtoprovidean

analysisofknowledgesystemlayerforstrategicpurposes(Nonakaetal.

2000;NonakaandToyama2005).

●Tocountertheproblemof…inertia?or…core-rigidities?,firmhave

…creativeroutines?todevelopsandaccumulatesknowledgeassetsofa

higherorder:knowledgetocreateknowledge,ororganizationalcapabilitytoinnovateandself-renew.

knowledgevisions,baandtheknowledgecreationprocessthattakesplaceinbaarepartofthefirm?screativeroutinesanditisnurturedbyleadership(NonakaNonakaChoiTsoukas2003)

●Moretheoreticalelaborationisneededontheinterrelationshipsbetween

leadershipandbainorganizationalknowledgecreationtheory.

--Whatdoesleadershipof,and/orinbaentail?

--Whatforms,shapes,energizes,positions,nurturesandtransformsthem?

--Isthereanempiricallyrobustandconceptuallyeleganttheoryof…h(huán)igh

quality?leadershipthatproposesspecificandmutualinteractionsbetween

leadershipandba?

●Apromisinglineofworkwouldbeinductivetheorizingintheveinof

GhoshalandBartlett(1966),whichfirstidentifiedthedimensionsof

leadership,andthereafterthecharacteristicsofleadershipqualitythat

createdeffectivechangeinanorganization.

3.Theorginoffirm

●Entrepreneurshipresearchislimitedusedinorganizationalknowledgecreation

theory,andparticularlyoftheexplorationoftherelationshipbetweenthe

originofknowledgeandtheoriginoffirmsandorganization

--Doesthebaprecedethefirm,andifyes,whatcharacterizesthebaofentrepreneurshippriortofirmformation?

--Whatdistinguishesentrepreneurialknowledgecreationfromknowledgecreationwithintheboundariesofafirm?

--Whatspaces,discoursesandstakeholdersareimperativeforentrepreneur?sknowledgecreation(SteyaertandKatz2004)?

--Whatistherelationshipbetweenentrepreneurialknowledgecreationandthe

entrepreneur?sabilitytoperceive,createandprofitfrombusiness

opportunities?

--Whatistheknowledgesystemlayer?simpactontheemergingprojectand

businesssystemlayersintheentrepreneurialfirm?

--Whatistheprojectsystemandbusinesssystemlayer?simpactonthe

knowledgesystemlayerafterthefirmhasbeenfoundedandresources

acquiredforbusinessandprojects?

4.Thedynamicsoforganizationalknowledgecreationinorganizationaladaptation

●Animportantareaforfutureresearchisnotonlywhyorganizationssucceedin

doingallthis,butalsowhytheyfail.

●Organizationalfailuremustbestudiedalongthetemporaldimensionwhere

imbalancescanemerge(Probst&Raisch2005)

(e.g.creativeroutinesvs.easilymanageableassets,

applyingexistingknowledgeassetsvs.generatingitscapacity

explorationvs.exploitation,andsoon)

●Theorganizationdoesnotbuildeffectiveorganizationalmemoriesand

knowledgemanagement,andtheorganization?sknowledgesystemlayer

falters(e.g.Argote1999).

●Thelackofknowledgevision

●Thejustificationofknowledgecreationhingesonthepastandcurrent

utilityofknowledge,drivenbytheimmediateneedsinthebusiness

systemandprojectsystemlayers.Thefirmsacrificeseconomyofpatience

foreconomyofspeed(NonakaandToyama2002):fastandeffective

knowledgeusebecomestheprimaryjustificationcriterion.….

●Inthelongrun,itwillfailtoadapttoachangingenvironment,andmore

importantly,itlosesitsreasonforbeing.

●Thestudyofthebalanceinorganizationalknowledgecreationisnotonlya

topicforcross-sectionalresearch(e.g.resourcesallocatedtoexplorationvs.

exploitation,theyearlyR&Dbudgetversusinvestmentinoperational

improvement),butshouldalsobestudiedasprocesses.

●Firmsmaycreate,loseandrestoretheirbalanceonthetemporaldimension,

anditisimportantforfutureresearchtounderstandhowtheseprocesseswork.

●Comparingsuccessfulandunsuccessfulorganizationswillleadtobetter

predictionsregardingtheadaptationoforganizationsinthefaceofinternalandexternalchanges.

Nonakaetal.(2006)arguedthatunderstandingrelative…success?requiresaretrospectiveviewofthecontextofentrepreneurialknowledgecreation,baandleadership,and,ultimately,theveryoriginoforganizationalknowledge.Inthissense,epistemologycontinuestomatter!

Reflections

NonakaandTakeuchi(1995)proposedarichmodelthatconceptualizedtheactivitiesofknowledgecreation.However,theyonlypresentedtheguidelinesthatcanpurportedlyfacilitateknowledgecreationatahighlevelofgeneralityanddidnotprovideexplicitguidancefororganizationalactions.Inordertomaketheknowledgecreationfeasibleandeffective,itisimportanttoidentifythepossiblecausalityofknowledgecreation.Factorsthatmaycontributetoknowledgecreationandconversionneedtobeidentified.QuantitativeempiricaltestrelatingNonaka?sknowledgecreationmodestoorganizationalperformance(e.g.LeeandChoi,2003)mightverifythefeasibilityofthemodelaswell.

SupplementaryReadings

1.方世杰、方世榮，「知識(shí)管理—觀念架構(gòu)的建立」，商管科技季刊，第一卷

第三期，頁355-374，民國89年。

2.方世杰，「知識(shí)管理研究之本質(zhì)：組織知識(shí)的統(tǒng)治」，民國97年。

3.Becerra-Fernandez,I.andSabherwal,J.(2001),“Organizationalknowledge

managemen