醫(yī)學(xué)專業(yè)英語翻譯參考范本

精品精品感謝下載載感謝下載載Chapter1Passage1HumanBodyInthispassageyouwilllearn:1. Classification of organ systems2. Structure and function of each system3.AssociatedmedicaltermsTounderstandthehumanbodyitisnecessarytounderstandhowitspartsareput togetherand howthey function. The study of the body's structure isanatomy;thestudyofthebody'sfunctionisknownasphysiology.Otherstudiesofhuman body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology,hematology,immunology,psychologyetc.了解人體各部分的組成及其功能，對于認(rèn)識(shí)人體是必需的。研究人體結(jié)構(gòu)的科學(xué)叫解剖學(xué)；研究人體功能的科學(xué)叫生理學(xué)。其他研究人體的科學(xué)包括生物學(xué)、細(xì)胞學(xué)、胚胎學(xué)、組織學(xué)、內(nèi)分泌學(xué)、血液學(xué)、遺傳學(xué)、免疫學(xué)、心理學(xué)等等。Anatomistsfinditusefultodividethehumanbodyintotensystems,thatis,theskeletalsystem,themuscularsystem,thecirculatorysystem,therespiratorysystem, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, nervoussystem,thereproductivesystemandtheskin.Theprincipalpartsofeachofthesesystemsaredescribedinthisarticle.生殖系統(tǒng)以及感覺器官的做法是很有幫助的。本文描繪并闡述了各系統(tǒng)的主要部分。Theskeletalsystemismadeofbones,jointsbetweenbones,andcartilage.Itsfunctionistoprovidesupportandprotectionforthesofttissuesandtheorgansofthebodyandtoprovidepointsofattachmentforthemusclesthatmovethebody.Thereare206bonesinthehumanskeleton.Theyhavevariousshapes-long,short,cube-shaped,flat,andirregular.Manyofthelongboneshaveaninteriorspacethatisfilledwithbonemarrow,wherebloodcellsaremade.骨骼系統(tǒng)由骨、關(guān)節(jié)以及軟骨組成。它對軟組織及人體器官起到支持和保護(hù)作用，并牽動(dòng)骨胳肌，引起各種運(yùn)動(dòng)。人體有 206根骨頭。骨形態(tài)不一，有長的、短、立方的、扁的及不規(guī)則的。許多長骨里有一個(gè)內(nèi)層間隙，里面充填著骨髓， 這即是血細(xì)胞的制造場所Ajointiswherebonesarejoinedtogether.Theconnectioncanbesoclosethatnomovementispossible,asisthecaseintheskull.Otherkindsofjointspermitmovement: either back and forth in one plane - aswith the hinge joint of elbow-ormovementaroundasingleaxis-aswiththepivotjointthatpermitstheheadtorotate.Awiderangeofmovementispossiblewhentheball-shapedendof one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, asthey do in shoulderandhipjoints.關(guān)節(jié)把骨與骨連接起來。顱骨不能運(yùn)動(dòng)，是由于骨與骨之間的連接太緊密。但其它的關(guān)節(jié)可允許活動(dòng)，如一個(gè)平面上的前后屈伸運(yùn)動(dòng)，如肘關(guān)節(jié)；或是繞軸心旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)，如樞軸點(diǎn)允許頭部轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大輻度的運(yùn)動(dòng)（如肩關(guān)節(jié)、髖關(guān)節(jié)）即成為可能。Cartilage is amore flexible material than bone. It serves as aprotective,cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to breastboneandprovidesastructuralbaseforthenoseandtheexternalear.Aninfant'sskeletonismadeofcartilagethatisgraduallyreplacedbyboneastheinfantgrowsintoanadult.軟骨是一種比一般骨更具韌性的物質(zhì)。它是骨連結(jié)的保護(hù)、緩沖層。它把肋骨與胸骨連結(jié)起來，也是鼻腔與內(nèi)耳的結(jié)構(gòu)基礎(chǔ)。一個(gè)嬰兒的骨骼就是由軟骨組成，然后不斷生長、骨化，使嬰兒長大成人。Themuscularsystemallowsthebodytomove,anditscontractionsproduceheat,whichhelpsmaintainaconstantbodytemperature.Striatedmusclescanbeconsciouslycontrolled.Theendsofthesemusclesareattachedtodifferentbonesbyconnectivetissuebandssothatwhenthemusclecontracts,onebonemovesinrelationtotheother.Thismakesitpossibletomovethewholebody,aswhenwalking,ortomovejustonepartofthebody,aswhenbendingafinger.Contractionsoftheheartandsmoothmusclesarenotunderconsciouscontrol.Smoothmusclesarefoundinthewallsoforganssuchasthestomachandtheintestinesandservetomovethecontentsoftheseorgansthroughthebody. 系統(tǒng)使軀體運(yùn)動(dòng)，肌肉收縮產(chǎn)生的熱有助于維持一個(gè)恒定的體溫。人體能夠有意識(shí)地控制條紋肌。結(jié)締組織使肌肉末端附著于不同的骨面上，所以當(dāng)肌肉收縮時(shí)，兩骨彼此靠近而產(chǎn)生運(yùn)動(dòng)。這也就使整個(gè)人體可以運(yùn)動(dòng)起來，如走路，運(yùn)動(dòng)軀體某個(gè)部位，如彎曲手指。心臟收縮和平滑肌收縮就不是被意識(shí)所控制的。器官壁內(nèi)層的平滑肌，如胃腸壁的平滑肌把胃腸中的物質(zhì)運(yùn)送到全身。The circulatory system. All parts of the body must have nourishment andoxygeninordertofunctionandgrow,andtheirwasteproductsmustberemovedbeforetheyaccumulateandpoisonthebody.Thecirculatorysystemdistributesneededmaterialsandremovesunneededones.Itismadeupoftheheart,bloodvessels,andblood,whichtogethermakeupthecardiovascularsystem.Thebloodisalsopartofthebody'sdefensesystem.Ithasantibodiesandwhitebloodcellsthatprotectthebodyagainstforeigninvaders. 物質(zhì)和氧氣來使之發(fā)揮功能和生長，也需要在這些器官所產(chǎn)生的廢物積聚而危害生命之前將其排除。循環(huán)系統(tǒng)運(yùn)送有用物質(zhì)，排泄廢物。心血管系統(tǒng)是循環(huán)系統(tǒng)的組成之一；心血管系統(tǒng)包括心臟、血管及血液。血液也是機(jī)體防御系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)部分，血液中有抗體及白細(xì)胞來防止機(jī)體受到外來的侵襲。Theheartisamusclethatisdividedintotwonearlyidenticalhalves:onehalfreceivesbloodfromthelungsandsendsittotherestofthebody,theotherhalfsendsbloodthathastraveledthroughthebodybacktothelungs.Whentheheartmusclecontracts,thebloodisforcedoutintoarteriesandenterssmallcapillaries.Bloodreturnstotheheartthroughveins. 心臟是一塊被分為幾乎對等兩半的肌肉。一半吸收來自肺部的血液，并將血液運(yùn)送到機(jī)體的其余部位，另一半使流經(jīng)全身的血液回流人肺。心臟收縮時(shí)，動(dòng)脈把全身血液輸送到毛細(xì)血管。靜脈輸送血液返回心臟。Alsofunctioningincirculationisthelymphaticsystem.Someofthefluidthatsurroundscellsdoesnotreenterthebloodvesselsdirectly.Thisfluid,calledlymph,returns tothe heart by way of anothersystem of channels -the lymph vessels.Lymphnodesalongthesevesselsfilterthefluidbeforeitreenterstheblood.Thespleenisalargelymphaticorganthatfilterstheblood. 個(gè)組成部分。一些細(xì)胞周圍的體液不是直接回流入血管通道，這種體液叫淋巴液，它是流經(jīng)另一個(gè)管道系統(tǒng) ——淋巴管而回流人心臟。沿淋巴管的淋巴結(jié)將淋巴液過濾，過濾后回流人血液。脾是一個(gè)過濾血液的大淋巴器官。Therespiratorysystemtakesinoxygenfromtheairandexpelscarbondioxideandwatervapor.Airentersthenoseandmouthandtravelsthroughthelarynx,andtrachea.Thetracheadividestoentereachofthetwolungsandthendividesmorethan20timestoformaverylargenumberofsmallairspaces.Oxygenfromtheairentersthebloodthroughcapillariesinthewallsoftheseairspaces,andthebloodreleasecarbondioxideintotheairspacestobeexhaled. 呼吸系統(tǒng)從空氣中攝取氧氣，并將二氧化碳、水蒸氣排出體外?？諝饨?jīng)鼻腔、口腔人喉管、氣管。氣管分成左右支氣管，各連結(jié)左右肺，左右支氣管再分枝 20 多次，在終端形成大量微小的肺泡。空氣攝取的氧氣流經(jīng)這些肺泡壁內(nèi)的毛細(xì)血管流入血液，血液再經(jīng)肺泡把釋放出的二氧化碳排出體外。Thedigestivesystemconsistsofatubeextendingfromthemouthtotheanus.Init,foodandfluidsaretakenin,movedthroughthebody,andbrokendownintosmall molecules that are absorbed into the circulatory system. This breakdown,knownasdigestion,isbothamechanicalandachemicalprocess. 口腔直到肛門的管道。食物和液體在消化道里被吸收，在腸道里移動(dòng)時(shí)，被分解成小分子物質(zhì)后再進(jìn)入循環(huán)系統(tǒng)。這種分解，即消化，是一個(gè)機(jī)械過程，也是一個(gè)化學(xué)過程。Foodentersthroughthemouth,wherechewingandsalivastarttobreakitupandmakeiteasiertoswallow.Next,thefoodtravelsdownthroughtheesophagustothestomach.Contractionsofthestomach'smuscularwallcontinuetobreakdownthefoodmechanically,andchemicaldigestioncontinueswhenacidandenzymesaresecretedintothestomachcavity. 食物進(jìn)入口腔里，咀嚼和唾液開始將食物粉碎，使之便于吞咽。接著，食物經(jīng)食管人胃。胃肌壁的收縮繼續(xù)機(jī)械化地分解食物，而當(dāng)酸和酶分泌入胃腔時(shí)，化學(xué)性消化開始。Theliquifiedfoodgraduallypassesintothesmallintestine.Inthefirstpartofthesmallintestine,calledtheduodenum,enzymesfromthepancreasareadded.Theseenzymescompletethechemicalbreakdownofthefood.Thedigestionoffatisaidedbybile,whichismadeintheliverandstoredinthegallbladder.Thesmallintestineofanadultisabout21feet(6.4meters)long.Mostofitslengthisdevotedtoabsorbingthenutrientsreleasedduringthesedigestiveactivities. 液體化食物逐漸進(jìn)入小腸。小腸的起始部分叫十二指腸，胰腺分泌的酶輔助食物消化。這些酶完成食物的化學(xué)分解。肝臟分泌的膽汁貯存在膽囊內(nèi)，膽汁有助于脂肪消化。一個(gè)成年人的小腸有 21英尺（6.4米）長。小腸的大部分腸段用來吸收消化過程中釋放的營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)。Theliquidremainderofthefoodentersthelargeintestine,orcolon,whichisabout12feet(3.7meters)long.Itismorethantwiceaswideasthesmallintestine.Inthelargeintestinemostofthefluidisabsorbed,andtherelativelydryresiduesare expelled. 液狀的剩余食物進(jìn)入大腸，或結(jié)腸，它大約有 12英尺（3.7米）長。大是小腸的兩倍多寬。大部分液體在大腸內(nèi)被吸收，相對干化的殘余物被排出體外。The urinary system maintains normal levels of water and of certain smallmolecules such assodium and potassium in the body. It does this by bloodthroughthekidneys,twoefficientfilteringorgansthatgetridofanyexcessofvariousmoleculesandconservethosemoleculesthatareinshortsupply. 泌尿統(tǒng)維持水分及體內(nèi)某些小分子物質(zhì)，如鈉、鉀的正常水平。身體是通過讓 腎過濾血液來做到這一點(diǎn)的。腎是兩個(gè)有效的過濾器官，它濾出各種多余的小分子物質(zhì)，保留那些供應(yīng)不足的小分子物質(zhì)。Thefluidthatleavesthekidneys,knownasurine,travelsthroughatubecalledtheuretertothebladder.Thebladderholdstheurineuntilitisvoidedfromthebodythroughanothertube,theurethra. 從腎流出的液體，即尿，通過輸尿管人膀胱。膀胱起貯存尿液的作用，直到尿經(jīng)膀胱另一端的管道排出。The endocrine system. The two systems that control body activities are endocrinesystemandthenervoussystem.Theformerexertsitscontrolbymeansofchemicalmessengerscalledhormones.Hormonesareproducedbyavarietyofendocrineglands,whichreleasethehormonesdirectlyintothebloodstream. 內(nèi)泌系統(tǒng)。內(nèi)分泌和神經(jīng)是調(diào)控機(jī)體活動(dòng)的兩個(gè)系統(tǒng)，前者依靠其化學(xué)信使 ——激素發(fā)揮作用。激素是由各種內(nèi)分泌腺體制造，并直接被釋放入血流Amajorglandisthepituitary,whichislocatedunderthebraininthemiddleofthe head. It produces at least eight which affect growth, function, and development of the sex organs. Because some of the pituitary'shormones stimulate other glands to producetheir own hormones, the pituitarycalledthemastergland. 腦垂體是一個(gè)主要腺體，它位于頭中部腦下方。它至少分泌八種激素，這些激素對人體生長、肝功能及性器官發(fā)育有影響。因?yàn)槟X垂體分泌的一些激素促進(jìn)其他腺體分泌激素，所以腦垂體是主要腺體。Anothergland,thethyroid,islocatedbetweenthecollarbones.Itshormonecontrolstherateofthebody'smetabolism.Thesexorgans(ovariesendtestes)makethesexcellsandalsomakehormonesthatcontrolcertaincharacteristicsofmalesandfemales.Locatedontopofeachkidneyistheadrenalgland,whichproducescortisoneandadrenaline.Thepancreasproducesnotonlydigestiveenzymesbutalso3insulinandglucagon,whichcontrolthebody'suseofsugarand starches. 另一個(gè)腺體，甲狀腺，位于鎖骨之間。甲狀腺激素調(diào)控著機(jī)體新陳代謝的速度。性器官（卵巢、睪丸）分泌性細(xì)胞和性激素，這些激素控制著男性和女性的某些特征。每邊腎上方是腎上腺，它分泌可的松和腎上腺激素。胰腺不僅分泌消化酶，而且分泌胰島素和高血糖素，這兩種激素控制機(jī)體的糖分及淀粉的消耗。Thenervoussystem.Thebrain,thespinalcordandthenerve-alsocontrolsbodyactivities.Thelowerpartsofthebraincontrolbasicfunctionssuchasbreathingandheartrateaswellasbodytemperature,hunger,andthirst.Abovetheseregionsarethecentersforsight,sound,touch,smell,andtaste,andtheregionsthatdirectvoluntarymuscularactivitiesofthearmsandlegs.Performedherearethehigherfunctionsofintegratingandprocessinginformation. 神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)渴的基本活動(dòng)。而腦的偏上部位則是視覺、聽覺、觸覺、嗅覺及味覺中心，也是指揮臂、腿隨意肌肉運(yùn)動(dòng)的區(qū)域。神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)更高級(jí)的功能是整合、處理信息。Thebrainreceivesandsendsinformationbymeansofnerves,manyofwhichliepartly in the spinal cord. The spinal cord isprotected by the spinal column.Nervesenterandleavethespinalcordateachlevelofthebody,travelingtoandfromthearms,legs,andtrunk.Thesenervesbringinformationfromthevarioussenseorgans.Theinformationisprocessedbythebrain,andthenmessagesarecarriedbacktomusclesandglandsthroughoutthebody. 息，許多神經(jīng)部分地分布在脊髓里。脊髓由脊柱保護(hù)。在機(jī)體每一級(jí)，神經(jīng)傳人、傳出脊髓，往返于臂、腿、軀體。這些神經(jīng)輸送來自各種感覺器官的信息。信息經(jīng)腦處理后輸送回全身及腺體Thereproductivesystemisconstructeddifferentlyformalesandfemales.Themalereproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducing,transportingandmaintainingviablesperm(themalesexcell).Italsoproducesthemalesexhormone,testosterone,whichregulatesthedevelopmentofabeard,pubichair,adeepvoiceandotherbodilycharacteristicsoftheadultmale. 男、女性的生殖系統(tǒng)不同。男性生殖系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生、輸送、維持能存活的精子（男性性細(xì)胞） 。它也分泌男性激素睪酮，以此調(diào)節(jié)胡須、陰毛、深沉嗓音極其他成年男子身體發(fā)育的特征。Thefemaleproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducingandtransportingova (the female sex cells), eliminating ova from the body when they are fertilized by sperm, nourishing and providing aplace for growth of anembryowhenanovumisfertilizedbysperm,andnourishinganewbornchild.Thefemalereproductivesystemalsoproducesthefemalesexhormones,estrogenandprogesterone, which regulate the development of breasts and other bodilycharacteristicsofthematurefemale. 女性生殖系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生、輸送卵子（女性性細(xì)胞） ，未受精的卵子排出體外，而當(dāng)精、卵結(jié)合時(shí)，女性生殖系統(tǒng)培養(yǎng)、提供胚胎生長場所，并孕育新生兒。女性生殖系統(tǒng)也分泌女性性激素 ——雌激素和孕酮，以此調(diào)節(jié)乳房及其他成熟女性身體發(fā)育的特征。Theskinisacompletelayerthatprotectstheinnerstructuresofthebody,anditisthelargestofthebody'sorgans.Itkeepsoutforeignsubstancesandpreventsexcessive water evaporation. The nerves in the skin provide tactile information.Theskinoskeepthestemperaturecloseto7 ,tsconservedbyreducingbloodflowthroughtheskinorisexpendedbyincreasingbloodflowandbyevaporationofsweatfromtheskin.Hairandnailsareaccessorystructuresof the skin. 皮膚是保護(hù)肌體內(nèi)層結(jié)構(gòu)的完整層，也是機(jī)體的最大器官。皮膚防御外來侵襲，防止過多水分蒸發(fā)。 皮膚上的神經(jīng)提供觸覺信息。 皮膚也能將體溫維持到 98.6華氏度（約37攝氏度汗液蒸發(fā)時(shí)，熱量就散發(fā)。頭發(fā)及指甲是皮膚的附屬結(jié)構(gòu)。CellsandTissues 細(xì)胞與組織Inthispassage,youwilllearn:1.Humanbodysystemsasawhole2.Vitalpartsofacell3.FourkindsoftissuesCellsareorganizedintotissues,andtissuesarearrangedintoorgans,whichinturnaregroupedintosystems.Eachbodysystemservesitsspecificfunctions.Bearinmindhoweverthatthebodyfunctionsasawhole----nosystemisindependentftheTheyktogethertomaintainthey sstateflstability,termedwt snrnhcells,thesmallesttlivingmatterthatcanexistbyitself. 細(xì)胞構(gòu)成組織，組織構(gòu)成器官，器官又進(jìn)一步構(gòu)成系統(tǒng)。人體的每個(gè)系統(tǒng)都有其特定功能，但是，請記住這里 :機(jī)體是作為一個(gè)整體來發(fā)揮用的，沒有哪個(gè)系統(tǒng)能夠獨(dú)立于其他系統(tǒng)而存在，是整體系統(tǒng)共同作用保持了機(jī)體內(nèi)部的穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)，即體內(nèi)平衡?，F(xiàn)在，我們先討論細(xì)胞 能獨(dú)立存在活性物質(zhì)的最小單位。Thebodycanbestudiedfromitssimplesttoitsmostcomplexlevel,beginningwith the cell. All body functions result from the activities of billions of specializedcells.Someplantsandanimalsconsistofonlyasinglecell.Othersarecomposedofmanybillionsofcells. 研究機(jī)體。所有人體的功能都來自億萬個(gè)特定細(xì)胞活動(dòng)，有的動(dòng)植物僅由一個(gè)細(xì)胞構(gòu)成，其他生物則由億萬個(gè)細(xì)胞構(gòu)成。Cells exist in a variety of shapes and sizes. They may, for example, cube-shapedorflat.Scientistswhostudycellshavedeterminedthatasinglecellmaybeaslargeasatennisballorsosmallthatthousandswouldfitonthepointofa . The yolk f a ns g s y a very e cell. By contrast,bacteria----each one of which is a tiny cell----are among the smallest s f s shape r size, y cell contains the machinery ”d maintainlife.Whilenormallycellsfunctionwithgreatefficiency,theyaresubjecttovariousdisordersthatresultindisease. 細(xì)胞有很多種形狀和大小。列如：有可能是立方形或扁形的?？茖W(xué)家的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)單獨(dú)一個(gè)細(xì)胞可以像網(wǎng)球一樣的大小，或小到幾千個(gè)細(xì)胞才能剛好填滿針頭。雞的蛋黃是一個(gè)非常大的單細(xì)胞。微小的細(xì)菌呢算是最小的細(xì)胞。不管是細(xì)胞大小或形狀的不同，每個(gè)細(xì)胞都有 需要存活的機(jī)制 。對每個(gè)正常的細(xì)胞，效力的細(xì)胞，都存在許多問題，能導(dǎo)致疾病。Thesizeofcellsisusuallymeasuredinmicrons.Amicronisamillionthofameter,andabout25,000micronsequaloneinch.Thesmallestbacteriaareabout0.2micronindiameter.Theaveragecellinthehumanbody----abouttenmicronsindiameter----isaspeckbarelyvisiblewithouttheaidofamicroscope. 細(xì)胞的大是以微米為長度單位。微米是一米的一百萬分之一， 25000 微米等于一寸。最小的細(xì)菌的圓徑是 0.2微米。人體正常細(xì)胞的評價(jià)圓徑約十微米，肉眼勉強(qiáng)可以看得到，不需要顯微鏡的幫助。Thestudyofcellsisthebranchofbiologycalledcytology.Thesciencethatdealswithcellsonthesmalleststructuralandfunctionalleveliscalledmolecularbiology. 構(gòu)及功能的研究成為分子生物學(xué)。Allcellsconsistf,the g. Themfatypicalcellformsthreevitalparts----thecellmembrane,thecytoplasm,andthenucleus.Themembraneenclosestheothercellstructures.Muchofthechemicalworkofthe cell is done in the cytoplasm, which surrounds the nucleus. The nucleus,enclosedbyitsownmembrane,isthecontrolcenterofthecell.(seeFigure1-1) 有細(xì)胞都是以 原生質(zhì)，又稱生命膠質(zhì)所形成的。典型細(xì)胞的原生質(zhì)形成了三個(gè)重要部分，細(xì)胞膜、細(xì)胞質(zhì)和細(xì)胞核。細(xì)胞膜圈住了細(xì)胞的其他結(jié)構(gòu)。大部分的化學(xué)反應(yīng)都在細(xì)胞核周圍，細(xì)胞質(zhì)完成的。被自己的膜包圍的細(xì)胞核是細(xì)胞的控制中心。thecellsMembrane 細(xì)胞膜Cellscansurviveonlyinaliquidmediumthatbringsinfoodandcarriesawaywaste. For one-celled organisms this fluid is an external body of water theocean,alake,orastream.Formany-celledplantsandanimals,however,themediumispartoftheorganism----inplants,thesap;inanimalstheblood. 能存活在能供養(yǎng)分又能排除廢物的液體媒介中。對單細(xì)胞生物來說，這就是細(xì)胞外的液體，如：大海里、河里或水流中。在對多細(xì)胞生物而言，這種媒介就是生物體的一部分，植物以汁液的形式，動(dòng)物以血液的形式。The cell membrane is semipermeable, or differentially permeable somesubstancescanpassthroughit,butotherscannot.Thischaracteristicenablesthecelltoadmitusefulsubstancesandtorejectharmfulsubstancesfromthesurroundingfluidaswellastoforceout,orexcretewasteproductsintothefluid.細(xì)胞膜是半滲透性或區(qū)別性的滲透膜，即某些物質(zhì)能滲透。這個(gè)特殊性使細(xì)胞對細(xì)胞周圍只吸收了需要的物質(zhì)而排除掉有害的物質(zhì)，包括細(xì)胞內(nèi)的廢物通過液體化后排出細(xì)胞外。The cell membrane is an extremely thin but tough band of protein phospholipidmolecules.Phospholipidsarechemicalssimilartostoredfat.Ontheevidenceofelectronmicrographs,biologistsbelievethatithasporesthroughwhichcertainsmallmoleculespassintact.Substancesprobablypassthroughthecell membrane in several ways. Small chambers located on the cell membranecalled caveolae gather chemical signals and channel them into the cells. caveolaemayalsohelp distributeproteinsthroughoutthecell.Largemoleculesenter the cell by aprocess called diffusion, in which they may be dissolved substancesinthecellmembrane.Theycanthenthroughthemembranewithoutdifficulty. Some cells take in large molecules by means of pinocytosis. In process, the cell membrane forms a pocket around large molecules floatingagainst it. The molecule-and-fluid-filled pocket then breads loose from themembranetobecomeabubblelikevacuole,andthevacuolethendriftsintothecytoplasm.Finally,thevacuolewallbreaksupandthemoleculesarereleasedintothecytoplasm. 細(xì)胞膜是一種非常薄但確以很堅(jiān)固的蛋白磷脂膜形成。 磷脂是一種類似儲(chǔ)存的脂肪的蛋白物質(zhì)。通過電子顯微鏡，生物學(xué)家相信細(xì)胞膜有孔，使較小的物質(zhì)完全可以通過。物質(zhì)可通過多種方式從細(xì)胞膜進(jìn)入。細(xì)胞膜上的結(jié)構(gòu)，稱 小穴，可接受化學(xué)信號(hào)再傳到細(xì)胞內(nèi)。小穴還可能參于細(xì)胞蛋白的分配。 大的分子可通過 滲濾進(jìn)入細(xì)胞內(nèi)，或被細(xì)胞膜內(nèi)體分解，使它們更容易的進(jìn)入細(xì)胞內(nèi)。有些細(xì)胞可通過 胞飲方式吞飲較大的物質(zhì)。這個(gè)過程是通過細(xì)胞膜在大物質(zhì)形成了 帶把它包圍著，將它以泡狀的 液泡入細(xì)胞質(zhì)，最后包圍解散，大物質(zhì)成功的進(jìn)入細(xì)胞內(nèi)。Thecytoplasm 細(xì)胞質(zhì)The cytoplasm ismainly water. Its water content varies from aminimum about65percenttoamaximumofabout95percent.Thesolidsinthecytoplasminclude granular proteins, carbohydrates, droplets of fat, and pigments. Thecytoplasmisthusacolloidalsystem. 細(xì)胞質(zhì)主要成分是 水。水分含量有百分之 65到最高，百分之 95。細(xì)胞質(zhì)內(nèi)的固體包括蛋白顆粒、碳水化合物、脂肪小滴和色素。細(xì)胞是膠體性的。The cytoplasm may be either watery or syrupy, depending on concentrationofsolidsdispersedinthefluid.Whenthesolidcontentdecreases,these structures seem to vanish. Changes in concentration also produce apparentsteamingofthecytoplasmfromplacetoplacewithinthecell.Thisoccurs,forexample,whenfoodmoleculesenterthecell. 細(xì)胞質(zhì)可能是水性或糖漿性，根據(jù)散在細(xì)胞質(zhì)內(nèi)固體的濃度。當(dāng)固體成分濃度增多，膜狀和纖維狀結(jié)果在細(xì)胞質(zhì)顯出。而當(dāng)固體成分濃度減少時(shí)，膜狀和纖維狀的結(jié)構(gòu)就消失。濃度的變化還可以表現(xiàn)細(xì)胞質(zhì)內(nèi)局部流動(dòng)的變化。食物分子進(jìn)入時(shí)可見。Most f the cells constant k f keeping e s d n cytoplasm.Herefoodmoleculesarechangedintothematerialneededforenergyand materials for growth or stiffening of the cell membrane are neededbytherestoftheorganism.Forexample,plantcellscontainingchlorophyllmanufactureglucose----aplantfood----fromcarbondioxideandwater. 大部分為了細(xì)胞存活的工作都在此處（細(xì)胞質(zhì)）完成的。在此處，食物物質(zhì)將被轉(zhuǎn)化成提供細(xì)胞能量的材料和提供細(xì)胞生長的材料，或細(xì)胞膜的增強(qiáng)劑所生產(chǎn)。多細(xì)胞植物的細(xì)胞質(zhì)還是生產(chǎn)了對其他生物提供食物的物質(zhì)。列如：植物葉綠素所產(chǎn)生的葡萄糖，植物的食物，從水和二氧化碳合成。Onefthecytoplasm skeyytransactionssnthesausage-shapedmitochondria.Eachmitochondrionhasaninnerandanoutermembrane.Likethecell membrane,the membranes ofthe mitochondrion aresemipermeable.Foodmolecules that pass into the cytoplasm are taken into the mitochondria oxidized,orburned,forenergy. 細(xì)胞質(zhì)能量轉(zhuǎn)換的要點(diǎn)發(fā)生在錐狀形的線粒體。 每個(gè)粒體都有內(nèi)膜和外膜。像細(xì)胞膜一樣，線粒體的膜也是半滲透性。進(jìn)入線粒體的食物分子被氧化提供出能量。Theendoplasmicreticulum,anetworkofmembranoustubes,runsthroughthe cytoplasm. In the opinion of some biologists, this network isacontinuousstructure that begins at the cell membrane, twists through the cytoplasm, endsatthemembranesurroundingthenucleus.Locatedalongtheendoplasmicreticulumaswellaselsewhereinthecytoplasmarenumerousribosomes.Thesetinygranulesconsistinpartofribonucleicacid(RNA).Proteinsaremanufacturedat the ribosomes. The Golgi complex, or Golgi apparatus, is a structurecomposedofstacksofthinsacs.Newlymadeproteinsmovefromtheendoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi complex, where they are stored for latersecretion. 結(jié)構(gòu)，始點(diǎn)為細(xì)胞膜，在細(xì)胞膜內(nèi)扭絞，終點(diǎn)為細(xì)胞核的膜。分布于胞漿網(wǎng)包括細(xì)胞質(zhì)中某處的是核糖體。這些小顆粒是核糖核酸所形成的。蛋白質(zhì)是在核糖體合成的。高爾基體是膜狀囊包堆成層形成的。新合成的蛋白從胞漿網(wǎng)移動(dòng)到高爾基體儲(chǔ)存，為了后來分泌所用。Vacuoles drift through the cytoplasm and usually carry food molecules insolution. Lysosomes are structures somewhat similar in appearance to vacuolesbutdenser.Theyappeartohaveadigestivefunction.Eachlysosomeisfilledwithdigestiveenzymesandencasedinamembrane.Lysosomesarebelievedtobreakdownfoodsubstancesbroughtintothecellbypinocytosis.IthasbeensuggestedthattheGolgicomplexplaysapartintheformationoflysosomes. 在細(xì)胞質(zhì)內(nèi)游動(dòng)的液泡一般是帶著食物分子的溶液。溶酶體是一種有點(diǎn)像液泡的結(jié)構(gòu)，但較稠。它是用來消化的。每個(gè)溶酶體的膜內(nèi)都是添裝著消化酶。我們認(rèn)為它是消化通過 胞飲方式的大質(zhì)。也認(rèn)為高爾基體對溶酶體的形成有關(guān)系。TheNucleus 細(xì)胞核Nearthecenterofthecellisaroundishoroval-shapednucleus.Thenucleuscontrols the growth and division of the cell. It also contains the structures thattransmithereditarytraits. 細(xì)胞的中央，圓形或橢圓形的就是細(xì)胞核。 細(xì)胞核控制細(xì)胞生長和分化。也裝著遺傳信息。Enclosed by atwo-layered membrane, the nucleus contains aliquid callednucleoplasm as well asstrands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) covered with coatingofprotein.AstrandofDNAconsistsofalongseriesofgenes,whicharetheunitsofheredityofplantsandanimals.Genesdeterminethecharacteristicsofacell.TheydothisbyregulatingtheproductionofRNA,whichinturncontrolsthemanufactureofspecificproteins. 被兩層膜圈住著，細(xì)胞核內(nèi)含有稱為 核質(zhì)（漿）液體和脫氧核糖核酸的蛋白層。脫氧核糖核酸縷是很長的基因系列所組成的，它是植物和動(dòng)物的遺傳信息?；驔Q定了細(xì)胞的特征。它是通過調(diào)節(jié)核糖核酸，使核糖核酸產(chǎn)出特異的蛋白。Humancells,forexample,makeonlyproteinsuniquetohumanbeingsDNAstrandsareusuallytoothinlystrungouttobeseenwithanopticalmicroscope.Becausethestrandsarereadilystainedwithdyes,theyarecalledchromatin.Whena cell begins to divide, however, the chromatin thickens into the form chromosomes. 小過光學(xué)顯微鏡能觀察到。因?yàn)槊撗鹾颂呛怂峥|能夠染色后部分被染，稱 染色質(zhì)。細(xì)胞分化過程中，染色體拾起變厚形成了 染色體。Anucleusnotundergoingdivisionhasatleastonenucleolus.Thenucleoluscontains aconcentration of RNA. Biologists think RNA ismade initially in sgtoaA t dstoredthereldformanufacture. 細(xì)胞核分化核仁不會(huì)減少，最少要有一個(gè)核仁。核仁含有豐富的核糖核酸。生物學(xué)家認(rèn)為核糖核酸原本在核仁里，根據(jù)脫氧核糖核酸的藍(lán)圖造出而藏在此處直到有蛋白合成的需要。thenucleusofanimalcellsisasphericalstructurecalledthecentrosome,fromwhichastersradiate.Thecentrosomecontainsapairofroddedstructurecalledcentrioles,whichusuallylieatrightanglestoeachother.Althoughcentriolesandcentrosomeshavenotbeenseeninplantcells,biologistsbelievethattcellscontainsimilarstructures. 靠近動(dòng)物的細(xì)胞核的圓形結(jié)構(gòu)叫 中心體可見呈放射狀散發(fā)的星體。中心體內(nèi)含有一對棍狀結(jié)構(gòu)，稱為 中心粒，一般都形成正確固定的角度。無法在植物細(xì)胞發(fā)現(xiàn)中心體和中心粒，但生物學(xué)家認(rèn)為植物應(yīng)該有存在類似功能的其他結(jié)構(gòu)。Tissues 組織Cellsareorganizedintotissuesthatperformspecificfunctions.Thefourbasictissuetypesareasfollows: 多細(xì)胞組成了組織，為了特異的功能。四種基本的組織：Epithelial tissues----covers and protects body structures and lines vessels,andcavities. 上皮組織 :覆蓋及保護(hù)著身體結(jié)構(gòu)和分清器官、導(dǎo)管和空腔。Connective tissues----supportsand binds body structures. Itcontains fibersandothernonlivingmaterialbetweenthecells;includedarefattissues,cartilage,bone and blood. 結(jié)締組織 :支柱和聯(lián)結(jié)著身體結(jié)構(gòu)。包括細(xì)胞之間的纖維和其它無物結(jié)構(gòu)。包括脂肪組織、軟骨、骨頭和血液。Muscle tissues----contracts to produce movement. The three types are：skeletalor voluntary muscle that moves theskeleton;thecardiac muscle of heart; and the smooth muscle that forms the walls of the abdominal organs.Cardiacandsmoothmusclecanfunctionwithoutconsciouscontrolandarethusdescribedasinvoluntarymuscle. 肌肉組織 :通過收拾來產(chǎn)生動(dòng)作。 分為三種：骨骼肌作用于一般骨骼移動(dòng)。心機(jī)，心臟的肌肉。平滑肌，形成胃腸道壁的肌肉。心機(jī)和平滑肌是非意識(shí)性，不隨意性肌肉。Nervoustissue——makesupthebrain,spinalcord,andnerves.Itcoordinatesandcontrolsbodyresponsesbytransmittingelectricalimpulses. 神經(jīng)組織:組成大腦、脊椎和神經(jīng)。它是通過動(dòng)作電位來超空身體。Thesimplesttissuesaremembranes.Mucousmembranessecretethickfluidcalledmucusthatprotectsunderlyingtissues.Serousmembranessecreteathin,wateryfluid.Theylinebodycavitiesandcoverorgans. 分泌出粘稠的膠液，起得組織保護(hù)作用。粘液組織分泌出較稀的粘液，起得身體導(dǎo)管的分界和覆蓋著各個(gè)器官。HumandiseasesInthispassageyouwilllearn:1.diseaseandpathology 2.theclassificationofs s n f the n y e yse n ey sytoThebriefsurveyofthehumanbodyinChapterOnehasgivenusaglimpseinto two different studies that are considered the fundamentals of sciences,namelyanatomyandphysiology.However,thepictureisnotcompletewithout considering pathology, the science that deals with the structural functionalchangesproducedbythedisease.Infact,themodernapproachtothestudy of disorder emphasizes the close relationship of the pathological andphysiological aspects and the need to understand the fundamentals of each treatinganybodydiseases. 第一章中，通過對人體的概論，即解剖學(xué)與生理學(xué)，我們對兩種被認(rèn)為是醫(yī)學(xué)基礎(chǔ)的不同學(xué)科有了一個(gè)大致的印象。然而如果我們不考慮病理學(xué)，這門涉及由疾病帶來的結(jié)構(gòu)和功能變化的學(xué)科，上述的人體概論就不是完整的。實(shí)際上，現(xiàn)代對疾病的研究方法強(qiáng)調(diào)了病理學(xué)與生理學(xué)方面的密切關(guān)系，強(qiáng)調(diào)了我們在治療任何人體疾病方面需要了解病理學(xué)與生理學(xué)基礎(chǔ)的重要性。Thenwhatisadisease?Itmaybedefinedasaconditionthatimpairstheproperfunctionofthebodyorofoneofitsparts.Everylivingthing,bothplantsandanimals,cansuccumbtodisease.People,forexample,areofteninfectedbytinybacteria,butbacteria,inturn,canbeinfectedbyevenmoreminuteviruses. 么什么是疾病呢？它可能被定義為正常的功能或是部分功能遭受損害時(shí)的一種狀態(tài)。每一種生物、植物和動(dòng)物，都會(huì)受制于疾病。例如，人類常常被微小的細(xì)菌所感染，但是，反過來說，細(xì)菌又能夠被甚至更加微小的病毒所感染。Hundredsofdifferentdiseasesexist.Eachhasitsownparticularsetofsymptomsandsigns,cluesthatenableaphysiciantodiagnosetheproblem.Asymptomissomethingapatientcandetect,suchasfever,bleeding,orpain.Asignissomethingadoctorcandetect,suchasaswollenbloodvesseloranenlargedinternalbodyorgan. 生能以此診斷疾病之所在。癥狀是病人自己就能覺察到的，比如，高燒、流血，或是疼痛。而征兆則是醫(yī)生能夠觀察到的，比如，血管擴(kuò)張或是體內(nèi)器官腫大。Diseasescanbeclassifieddifferently.Forinstance,anepidemicdiseaseisonethatstrikesmanypersonsinacommunity.Whenitstrikesthesameregionyearafteryearitisanendemicdisease.Anacutediseasehasaquickonsetandrunsashortcourse.Anacuteheartattack,forexample,oftenhitswithoutwarningandcan be quickly fatal. Achronic disease hasaslow onset and runs asometimesyears-longcourse.Thegradualonsetandlongcourseofrheumaticfevermakesitachronicailment.Betweentheacuteandchronic,anothertypeiscalledsubacute.疾病可以劃分為不同的種類，例如，流行病是一種在某一社區(qū)內(nèi)侵襲許多人的疾病。當(dāng)它急性心臟病發(fā)作常常沒有前兆，而且會(huì)很快致命。慢性病發(fā)作則慢，但病程有時(shí)會(huì)長達(dá)幾年之久。風(fēng)濕熱正是由于發(fā)病慢、病程長而成為一種慢性失調(diào)病（慢性?。?。而介于急性與慢性之間的另一種類型，就被稱為亞急性。Diseases can also be classified by their causative agents. For instance, infectious, or communicable, disease is the one that can be passed betweenpersons such as by means of airborne droplets from acough orsneeze.Tinyorganismssuchasbacteriaandfungicanproduceinfectiousdiseases.Socanviruses.Socantinyworms.Whateverthecausativeagentmightbe,itsurvivesinthepersonitinfectsandispassedontoanother.Sometimes,adisease-producingorganism gets into a person who shows no symptoms of the disease. asymptomaticcarriercanthenpassthediseaseontosomeoneelsewithoutevenknowinghehasit. 疾病也可以依其病原體來劃分，例如，傳染病也叫作可傳播的疾病，于是無癥狀的病原攜帶者甚至在自己也不知情的情況下就把疾病傳染給了他人。Noninfectiousdiseasesarecausedbymalfunctionsofthebody.Theseincludeorganor