法國革命和第一次工業(yè)革命

TheFrenchRevolution

&TheIndustrialRevolution

WangJiaojiao

TheFrenchRevolution

BackgroundtotheFrenchRevolutionthethreeestatesotherproblemsfacingtheFrenchmonarchyFromestates-generaltonationalassembly

DestructionoftheOldRegimeanewconstitutionTheRadicalRevolutionanationinarmstheCommitteeofPublicSafetyandtheReignofTerrorReactionandtheDirectoryTheageofNapoleonTheRevolutionwasaperiodofpoliticalandsocialupheavalandradicalchangeinthehistoryofFrance.TheFrenchgovernmentalstructure,previouslyanabsolutemonarchywithprivilegesforthearistocracyandCatholicclergy,underwentradicalchange.Thesechangeswereaccompaniedbyviolentturmoilwhichincludedthetrialandexecutionoftheking,vastbloodshedandrepressionduringtheReignofTerror,andwarfareinvolvingothermajorEuropeannations.

ThecausesoftheFrenchRevolutioncanbesoughtinamultifacetedexaminationofFrenchsocietyanditsproblemsinthelateeighteenthcentury.SocialProblem(thesocietyisdividedintothreeestates）TheclergyThenobilityThecommonersthepeasantsskilledartisans,shopkeepers,andotherwageearnersbourgeoisieormiddleclass

BackgroundtotheFrenchRevolutionFrancesenttroopsandsuppliestoaidtheAmericanrevolutionsGovernmenthadlargedebtswithheavyinterestextravagantspendingoncourtsoverambitiouswarsNeedfortaxreformnoblesweredeterminednottogiveuptheirtaxconcessionsthepeasantsandbourgeoisiewereunhappybecausetheyhadtopayallthetaxes.

FinancialDifficultiesAgeofEnlightenment:AnAgeinwhichScientificandPhilosophicalThoughtSpreadLiberalismHumanrights/NaturalrightsThesovereigntyofpeopleEqualrightsforallunderthelawPhilosophiesMainadvocatesofthisintellectualmovementVoltaire,Locke,Rousseau,etc…

TheEstate-General

TheEstate-GeneralopenedatVersaillesonMay5,1789.Itwasdividedfromthestartoverthequestionofwhethervotingshouldbebyorderorbyhead.Traditionally,eachorderwouldvoteseparately;eachwouldhavevetopowerovertheothertwo.ButtheThirdEstatewasopposedtothisapproachandpusheditsdemandsforvotingbyhead.

TheNationalAssemblyOnJune17,1789theThirdEstateconstituteitanddecidedtodrawupaconstitution.TheTennisCourtOath(P344)TheTennisCourtOath

InParis,citizensstormedthecity’slargestprison,theBastille,inpursuitofarms.Inthecountryside,peasantsandfarmersrevoltedagainsttheirfeudalcontractsbyattackingthemanorsandestatesoftheirlandlords.ThefallofBastillequicklybecameapopularsymboloftriumphoverdespotism.ThefalloftheBastilleandtheking’sapparentcapitulationtothedemandsoftheThirdEstatenowencouragedpeasantstotakemattersintotheirownhands.

TheFalloftheBastilleStormingtheBastille

DeclarationoftheRightsofManPassedbytheNationalAssemblyonAugust26,1789WrittenasaframeworkformoderndemocracySummaryoftheidealsoftheRevolutionJustifiedthedestructionofagovernmentbaseduponmonarchyandprivilegeTheestablishmentofanewregimebasedupontherightsofindividuals,liberty,andpoliticalequalityplausibleManyideasfortheDeclarationwerefromtheAgeofEnlightenmentAdoptedbytheUnitedNationsastheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights

DestructionoftheOldRegimeConstitutionof1791By1791,theNationalAssemblyhadcompletedanewconstitutionthatestablishedalimitedconstitutionalmonarchy.By1791,arevolutionaryconsensusthatwaslargelytheworkofthewealthiermembersofthebourgeoisiehadmovedFranceintoadrasticreorderingoftheoldregime.TheFrenchRevolutionwasabouttoenteramoreradicalstageaspowerpassedfromtheassemblytothenewParisCommune,composedofmanywhoproudlycalledthemselvesthesan-culottes.

ANewConstitutionSans-CulottesNamedthisbecausetheydidn'twearupperclassbreechesorculottesCommon/workingpeopleofParisTheirdesiresweresimple:SurvivalwasarightofallpeopleInequalityofanykindwastobeabolishedThearistocracyandthemonarchyweretobeeliminatedPropertywastobesharedincommunalgroupsTheRadicalRevolutionIn1792.9,thenewlyelectedNationalConventionbeganitssessions.TheConvention’sfirststepwastoabolishthemonarchyandestablisharepublic.TheConventionpassedadecreecondemningLouisⅩⅥtodeath.Withhisexecution,thedestructionoftheoldregimewascomplete.

ExecutionoftheKingBackedbythenewlyapprovedConstitutionof1793,RobespierreandtheCommitteeofPublicSafetybeganconscriptingFrenchsoldiersandimplementinglawstostabilizetheeconomy.ButRobespierreembarkeduponaReignofTerrorinlate1793–1794,duringwhichhehadmorethan15,000peopleexecutedattheguillotine(斷頭臺(tái)).WhentheFrencharmysuccessfullyremovedforeigninvadersandtheeconomyfinallystabilized,however,Robespierrenolongerhadanyjustificationforhisextremeactions,andhehimselfwasarrestedinJuly1794andexecuted.TheThermidoreanReactionandtheDirectoryTheerafollowingtheoustingofRobespierrewasknownastheThermidorean(熱月黨人)Reaction,andaperiodofgovernmentalrestructuringbegan,leadingtothenewConstitutionof1795andasignificantlymoreconservativeNationalConvention.Tocontrolexecutiveresponsibilitiesandappointments,agroupknownastheDirectory(督政府)wasformed.TheDirectory’sabuseofpowersooncametorivalthatofanyofthetyrannousrevolutionariesFrancehadfaced.Meanwhile,theCommitteeofPublicSafety’swareffortwasrealizingunimaginablesuccess.Frencharmies,especiallythoseledbyyounggeneralNapoleonBonaparte,weremakingprogressinnearlyeverydirection.Napoleon’sforcesdrovethroughItalyandreachedasfarasEgyptbeforefacingadeflatingdefeat.Inthefaceofthisrout,andhavingreceivedwordofpoliticalupheavalsinFrance,NapoleonreturnedtoParis.HearrivedintimetoleadacoupagainsttheDirectoryin1799,eventuallysteppingupandnaminghimself“firstconsul”—effectively,theleaderofFrance.WithNapoleonatthehelm,theRevolutionended,andFranceenteredafifteen-yearperiodofmilitaryrule.

TheAgeofNapoleon

Napoleon

Therevolutioneraofthelateeighteenthcenturywitnessedadramaticpoliticaltransformation.Revolutionaryupheavals,beginninginNorthAmericaandcontinuinginFrance,producedmovementsforpoliticallibertyandequality.TheFrenchRevolutionestablishedamodernrevolutionaryconcept.Fromthen,anewEuropeanerahadbegun.

ConclusionTheIndustrialRevolution(1765-1840)ContentsTheIndustrialRevolutioninGreatBritainOriginsoftheIndustrialRevolutionTechnologicalchangesandnewformsofindustrialorganizationTheSpreadofIndustrializationIndustrializationontheContinentTheIndustrialRevolutionintheUnitedStatesLimitingthespreadofindustrializationtothenonindustrializedworldTheSocialImpactoftheIndustrialRevolutionPopulationgrowthThegrowthofcitiesNewsocialclassesEffortsatchange

TheIndustrialRevolutionwasaperiodfromthe18thtothe19thcenturywheremajorchangesinagriculture,manufacturing,mining,transportation,andtechnologyhadaprofoundeffectonthesocial,economicandculturalconditionsofthetimes.ItbeganinEnglandinthemiddleofthe18thcentury,thensubsequentlyspreadthroughoutWesternEurope,NorthAmerica,Japan,andeventuallytheworld.TheIndustrialRevolutioninGreatBritain

OriginsoftheIndustrialRevolution

increasedfoodproductionandrapidgrowthofpopulationTechnologicalchangesandnewformsofindustrialorganizationThecottonindustry

JohnKay(English)Flyingshuttle,Hand-operatedmachinewhichincreasedthespeed1733ofweavingJamesHargreaves(English)Spinningjenny,Home-basedmachinethatproduceyarningreater1768quantitiesEdmundCartwright’s(English)Powerloom,allowedtheweavingofclothtocatchupwiththe1787spinningofyarnFlyingShuttleSpinningJennyPowerLoom

ThesteamengineInthe1760,JamesWattcreatedanenginepoweredbysteamthatcouldpumpwaterfromminesthreetimesasquicklyaspreviousengines.In1782,hedevelopedarotaryenginewhichcouldturnashaftandthusdrivemachinery.Thenewboostgiventocottontextileproductionbytechnologicalchangesbecamereadilyapparent.Thesuccessofthesteamengineledtoaneedformorecoalandanexpansionincoalproduction.Inturn,newprocessesusingcoalfurtheredthedevelopmentoftheironindustry.ARevolutioninTransportationIn1804,RichardTrevithickpioneeredthefirststeam-poweredlocomotiveonanindustrialraillineinsouthernWales.GeorgeStephenson’sRocketwasusedonthefirstpublicrailwayline,extending32milesfromLiverpooltoManchester.TherailroadcontributedsignificantlytothesuccessandmaturingoftheIndustrialRevolution.Railwayconstructioncreatednewjobopportunities.

TheironindustryInthe1780s,HenryCortdevelopedasystemcalledpuddling,inwhichcokewasusedtoburnawayimpuritiesinpigirontoproduceanironofhighquality.By1852,Britainproducedalmost3milliontons,morethantherestoftheworldcombined.Locomotive

TheindustrialfactoryThefactorybecamethechiefmeansoforganizinglaborforthenewmachines.Factoryownerscreateasystemoftime-workdisciplineinwhichemployeesbecameaccustomedtoworkingregular,unvaryinghours.Theyresortedtotoughmethodstoaccomplishtheirgoals.Factoryregulationswereminuteanddetailed.(Disciplineinthenewfactoriesinp364)TheGreatExhibition:Britainin1851In1851,theBritishorganizedtheworld’sfirstindustrialfair.ItwashousedatKensingtoninLondonintheCrystalPalace,anenormousstructuremadeentirelyofglassandiron,atributetoBritishengineeringskills.Itcovered19acresandcontained100,000exhibits.TheGreatExhibitiondisplayedBritain’swealthtotheWorld,itwasagiganticsymbolofBritishsuccess.TheCrystalPalaceTheSpreadofIndustrializationIndustrializationspreadfromGreatBritaintotheContinentalcountriesofEuropeandAmerica.FirsttobeindustrializedontheContinentwereBelgium,France,andtheGermanstatesandthenistheUnitedStates.IndustrializationontheContinentHurdles:lackoftechnicalknowledgeAdvantage:TheycouldsimplyborrowBritishtechniquesandpractices.Thegovernmentgavelotsofsupport.(Governmentsprovidedforthecostsoftechnical,education,awardedgrantstoinventorsandforeignentrepreneurs,exemptedforeignindustrialequipmentfromimportsduties,andevenfinancedfactories.)

TheIndustrialRevolutionintheUnitedStatesIn1800,theUnitedStateswasanagrariansociety.By1860,thepopulationoftheUnitedStatesincreasedrapidly.TheinitialapplicationofmachinerytoproductionwasaccomplishedbyborrowingfromGreatBritain.TheUnitedStateswasalargecountry,thousandsofmilesofroadsandcanalswerebuiltlinkingeastandwest.ThetransportationrevolutionturnedtheUnitedStatesintoasinglemassivemarketforthemanufacturedgoodsoftheNortheast,theearlycenterofAmericanindustrialization.By1860,theUnitedStateswaswellonitswaytobeinganindustrialnation.TheSocialImpactoftheIndustrialRevolutionPopulationgrowthPopulationincreaseshadbeguninthe18thcentury,buttheybecamedramaticinthe19thcentury.ThekeytotheexpansionofpopulationwasthedeclineindeathratesevidentthroughoutEurope.Twomajorfactorsexplainthisdecline:fewdeathsandbetternutrition.OfalltheEuropeannations,onlyIrelandhadadecliningpopulationinthe19thcentury.BecausethepotatocropinIrelandwasstruckbyafungusthatturnedthepotatoblack.ThegrowthofcitiesCitiesandtownsgrewdramaticallyinthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury,aphenomenonrelatedtoindustrialization.Thedramaticgrowthofcitiesproducedmiserablelivingconditionsformanyoftheinhabitants.Wealthy,middle-classinhabitantsoftenlivedinsuburbs,theindustrialworkersalwayslivedinthecenterofmostindustrialtowns.Sanitaryconditionsinthesetownswereappalling.NewsocialclassesThenewindustrialentrepreneurswerethepeoplewhoconstructedthefactories,purchasedthemachines,andfiguredoutwherethemarketswere.Increasingly,thenewindustrialentrepreneurs-thebankersandownersoffactoriesandmines-cametoa