土木專業(yè)外語Lesson市公開課一等獎省賽課獲獎課件

Lesson10Dam

水壩Newwordsandphrases:estuaryauxiliaryspillwayevacuatesiltreservoirreapprofilemonolithicbuttressconfigurationstrata(stratum復數(shù))permeabilityassesssimultaneousequilibriumconstituentexpedientblendretardhydratepulverizerockfillsurface-activeagent

表面活性劑water-to-cementratio

水灰比embankmentdam

堤壩1土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第1頁3.spillway

溢水口，泄洪道＝spill+way

spill－－n.v.

溢出、濺出20.retardv.n.

延遲、阻止、妨礙

retardtheprogress/developmentofsth.

妨礙事物發(fā)展Lackofscienceandeducationretardssocialprogress.缺乏科學和教育會妨礙社會進步。

Words2土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第2頁DamAdamisastructurebuiltacrossstream,river,orestuarytoretainwater.一個水壩是橫跨一條小溪、河流或港灣修建用來儲水結(jié)構(gòu)。Itspurposesaretomeetdemandsforwaterforhumanconsumption,irrigation,orindustry;toreducepeakdischargeoffloodwater;toincreaseavailablewaterstoredforgeneratinghydroelectricpower;ortoincreasethedepthofwaterinariversoastoimprovenavigation．它用途是滿足人類消費、灌溉或工業(yè)用水需求；降低洪水高峰流量；增加供水力發(fā)電用可用儲存水數(shù)量；或者增加河流水深以改善通航條件。Anincidentalpurposecanbetoprovidealakeforrecreation．一個附帶用途是可認為娛樂消遣提供一個湖泊。3土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第3頁DamAuxiliaryworksatadammayincludespillways，gates，orvalvestocontrolthedischargeofsurpluswaterdownstreamfromthedam；anintakestructureconductingwatertoapowerstationortocanals，tunnels，orpipelinesformoredistantuse；provisionforevacuatingsiltcarriedintothereservoir；andmeansforpermittingshipsorfishtopassthedam．一個水壩輔助工程可能包含控制從水壩出來過多下游水排放泄洪道，閘門，或者閥；引導水流到發(fā)電站或到運河、隧道或管道為更遠距離利用一個進口結(jié)構(gòu)；抽出被帶進水庫淤泥設(shè)備；以及允許輪船或魚類經(jīng)過大壩一些伎倆。Adamthereforeisthecentralstructureinamultipurposeschemeaimingattheconservationofwaterresources．

所以，針對水資源保護問題，一個水壩在多目標方案中是中心結(jié)構(gòu)。4土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第4頁Dam

Themultipurposedamholdsspecialimportanceintheunderdevelopedcountries，whereasmallnationmayreapenormousbenefitsinagricultureandindustryfromasingledam．各種用途水壩在不發(fā)達國家起著尤其主要作用，一個小國家在農(nóng)業(yè)和工業(yè)方面可能從一個單個水壩上取得巨大利益。Damsfallintoseveraldistinctclasses，byprofileandbybuildingmaterial．水壩依據(jù)其輪廓和建筑材料能夠分為幾個不一樣級別。Thedecisionastowhichtypeofdambebuilddependslargelyonthefoundationconditionsinthevalleyandtheconstructionmaterialsavailable．決定修建那種類型水壩很大程度上取決于流域基礎(chǔ)條件和可取得建筑材料。5土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第5頁DamBasically，thechoiceofmaterialsnowliesbetweenconcrete，soils，androckfill．基本上，現(xiàn)在材料選擇就在混凝土、土壤和填石當中。Thoughanumberofdamswerebuiltinthepastofjointedmasonry，thispracticeisnowlargelyobsolete.即使在過去修建了大量有接縫石壩，不過現(xiàn)在這種方法在很大程度上被荒廢了。Themonolithicformofconcretedamspermitsgreatervariationsinprofile，accordingtotheextentwaterpressureisresistedbythedeadweightofthestructure，istransferredlaterallytobuttresses，oriscarriedbyhorizontalarchingacrossthevalleytoabutmentsformedbythesidesofthevalley．整體澆鑄式混凝土大壩允許在外形上有更多改變，因為長度范圍水壓力可由結(jié)構(gòu)自重抵抗，可側(cè)向轉(zhuǎn)移到扶壁上，或者由橫跨溝谷水平拱架傳遞到由溝谷兩岸形成橋臺上。6土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第6頁BasicProblemsinDamDesign水壩設(shè)計中基本問題

Mostmoderndamscontinuetobeoftwobasictypes：masonry(concrete)andembankment(earthfill)．大多數(shù)當代水壩一直用兩種基本類型：磚石類（混凝土）和堤壩（填土）。Masonrydamsaretypicallyusedtoblockstreamsrunningthroughnarrowgorges,asinmountainousterrain；thoughsuchdamsmaybeveryhigh，thetotalamountofmaterialrequiredislimited．磚石大壩通常被用來阻擋流經(jīng)狹窄峽谷河流，就像在山區(qū)地形中；即使這類大壩可能非常高，不過要求材料總量卻是有限。

7土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第7頁BasicProblemsinDamDesign水壩設(shè)計中基本問題

Embankmentdamsarepreferredtocontrolbroadstreams，whereonlyaverylargebarrier，requiringagreatvolumeofmaterial，willsuffice．堤壩更適合控制寬敞河流，在這些地方有一個非常大障礙物就足夠了，這個大障礙物需要大量材料。Thechoiceofmasonryorembankmentandtheprecisedesigndependonthegeologyandconfigurationofthesite，thefunctionsofthedam，andcostfactors.磚石或填土選擇和準確設(shè)計取決于現(xiàn)場地質(zhì)概況和結(jié)構(gòu)，大壩功效，以及成本原因。8土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第8頁Siteinvestigationandtesting現(xiàn)場調(diào)查和測試Investigationofasiteforadamincludessinkingtrialboringstodeterminethestrata．大壩現(xiàn)場調(diào)查包含沉入鉆孔試驗以確定巖層。Theboringsaresupplementedbyshaftsandtunnelswhich，becauseoftheircost,mustbeusedassparinglyaspossible．鉆孔能夠由打井和挖坑道補充，后兩種方法因為它們成本較高，所以必須被盡可能節(jié)約地利用。Intheshaftsandtunnels，testscanbemadetomeasurestrength，elasticity，permeability，andprevailingstressesinstrata，withparticularattentiongiventothepropertiesofthinpartings，orwalls，betweenthemoremassivebeds．在井和坑道中，能夠做試驗測量巖層強度，彈性，透水性和主應力，同時要尤其注意薄部分，或在更堅固基床之間似墻地方特征。9土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第9頁Siteinvestigationandtesting現(xiàn)場調(diào)查和測試

Thepresenceingroundwaterofchemicalsolutionsharmfultothematerialstobeusedintheconstructionofthedammustbeassessed．地下水中對大壩施工要用到材料有害化學溶液存在必須進行評定。Sourcesofconstructionmaterialsneedexploration．Asdamscontinuetoincreaseinheight，thestudyoffoundationconditionsbecomesincreasinglycritical．建筑材料起源需要踏勘。伴隨大壩高度不停地增加，基礎(chǔ)條件研究變得越來越主要了。Modeltestsplayamajorpartinthestructural，seismic，andhydraulicdesignofdams.模型試驗在大壩結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計，地震設(shè)計和水力設(shè)計中起著主要作用。10土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第10頁Siteinvestigationandtesting現(xiàn)場調(diào)查和測試

Structuralmodelsareparticularlyusefulinanalysisofarchdamsandinverifyinganalyticalstresscalculations.結(jié)構(gòu)模型在拱壩分析和分析應力計算檢驗中尤其有用。Variousmaterialshavebeenusedformodeltests；onsomeearlytestsforHooverDam，rubberwasemployed．在模型試驗中已經(jīng)使用了各種不一樣材料；在胡佛大壩一些早期試驗中，還使用了橡膠。Theneedforaccuratereproductionofstresspatternsincomplexmodelsismetbyusingmaterialoflowelasticity．在復雜模型中應力模式準確再現(xiàn)這種需要能夠經(jīng)過使用低彈性材料來滿足。Inasense，damsthemselvesaremodelsforfuturedesign．在某種意義上，大壩本身就是未來設(shè)計模型。11土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第11頁HooverDam12土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第12頁Siteinvestigationandtesting現(xiàn)場調(diào)查和測試

Theinstrumentsbuiltintothemtorecordmovementsunderload，strainswithinmaterialsafterconstruction，temperatureandpressurechanges，andotherfactorsareinstalledprimarilytostudytheperformanceofthestructureandtowarnofpossibleemergencies，buttheirvalueinconfirmingdesignassumptionsisimportant．修建在大壩中統(tǒng)計荷載下運動，以及施工、溫度和壓力改變后材料內(nèi)部應變，和其它原因儀器被安裝上主要是用來研究結(jié)構(gòu)性能和警告可能緊急情況，不過它們在確定設(shè)計思想上價值是很主要。Thedigitalcomputerhaspermittedconsiderableadvanceinanalyticalmethodsofdesign．數(shù)字計算機已經(jīng)允許在設(shè)計分析方法上有相當大進步。13土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第13頁Siteinvestigationandtesting現(xiàn)場調(diào)查和測試

ItsabilitytohandleagreatvolumeofdataandtosolvelargesetsofsimultaneousequationscontainingmanyvariableshasmadepracticablethemethodofFiniteElementAnalysis．它處理大量數(shù)據(jù)和解答多組包含許多變量聯(lián)立方程能力使得有限元分析法是可行。Inthismethod，acomplicatedstructureisdividedintoanumberofseparateequilibriumconditions，andstrainsarerenderedcompatible，thusleadingtoacompleteanalysisofstressandstraindistributionthroughoutthestructure．在這種方法中，一個復雜結(jié)構(gòu)被分成了許多單獨平衡條件，應變被協(xié)調(diào)地實施，這么就得到了整個結(jié)構(gòu)應力應變分布完整分析。14土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第14頁Problemsofmaterials材料問題Eachofthetwobasicdammaterials，concreteandearthorrockfill，hasaweaknessthatmustbeovercomebytheproperdesignofthedam．大壩兩種基本材料（混凝土和填石或填土）中每一個都有弱點，這個弱點必須經(jīng)過大壩適當設(shè)計來克服。Weaknessesofconcrete混凝土弱點

Concreteisweakintensilestrength；thatis，itcanbepulledaparteasily．

混凝土抗拉強度很弱；也就是說它很輕易就會被拉開。15土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第15頁Weaknessesofconcrete混凝土弱點

Concretedamsmustthereforebedesignedtoplaceminimumtensilestrainonthedamandtomakeuseofconcrete’sgreatcompressivestrength，orabilitytosupportverticalloads．

所以，混凝土大壩必須被設(shè)計得只有很小拉應變作用在大壩上，而且利用混凝土很大抗壓強度，或者支撐垂直荷載能力。

Thechiefconstituentofconcrete，cement，shrinksasitsetsandhardens，duetowaterabsorptioninthecrystallinestructure，toevaporationofwatertotheatmosphere，andtocoolingfromthehighertemperaturesreachedwhenthechemicalreactionsinthecementareinprogressduringhydration．

因為晶體結(jié)構(gòu)內(nèi)對水吸收、水在空氣中蒸發(fā)和從水泥水化過程中產(chǎn)生高溫冷卻，混凝土主要成份——水泥，在凝固和硬化時要收縮。16土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第16頁Weaknessesofconcrete混凝土弱點Becauseofthelargevolumeofconcreteinadam，shrinkagepresentsaseriouscrackinghazard．因為一個大壩中要用大量混凝土，所以收縮展現(xiàn)出嚴重破裂危險。Variousexpedientsareusedtoovercometheproblem．Concreteisusuallycastinseparateblocksoflimitedheight．各種各樣方法被用來克服這個問題?；炷镣ǔＪ窃趩为氁欢ǜ叨饶緣K中澆鑄。Gapsmaybelefttopermitheatlossesandfilledinlater．Low-heatcementsmaybeused;thesearespeciallyblendedsothatratesofheatevolutionareretarded．先要留出縫隙以允許熱量損失，然后再填上。能夠使用低熱水泥，專門把這些混和起來方便減緩熱發(fā)展速度。17土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第17頁Weaknessesofconcrete混凝土弱點Cementcontentcanbesafelyreducedintheinteriorconcreteinthedam，inwhichstrengthandresistancetoclimaticandchemicaldeteriorationarelessimportant．在大壩中混凝土內(nèi)部水泥用量能夠安全地降低，在混凝土內(nèi)部，強度和抵抗氣候和化學損壞能力不太主要。Thecementcontent，andthereforetheheatcausedbyhydrating，canalsobereducedbyusingaggregate(theothermajorconstituentofconcrete)oflargerstones．水泥含量和所以由水合作用造成熱還能經(jīng)過使用更大塊石料（這是混凝土另一個主要成份）降低。Anotherexpedientistouseotherfine-grainedmaterials，suchasflyash(pulverizedfuel)，asfiller，reducingthetotalcementvolumeintheconcrete．另一個方法是使用其它有細密紋理材料，比如飛塵（被研成粉末燃料），就像填充料，可降低混凝土中水泥總量。18土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第18頁Weaknessesofconcrete混凝土弱點Anotheristousecertainadditives，surface-activeagents，andair-entrainingagentsthatpermitusingalowerwater-to-cementratioinmixingtheconcrete．還有一個方法是使用某種添加劑，表面活性劑和空氣夾帶劑，這些添加劑允許在混凝土混和物中使用較低水灰比。Techniquesusedtospeedthecoolingprocessincludereplacingsomeofthewaterinthemixbyice，circulatingwaterthroughpipeslaidintheconcrete，andextractingexcesswaterfromsurfacesbyvacuum．用來加速冷卻過程技術(shù)包含：用冰代替混合物中一部分水，經(jīng)過放置在混凝土中管道循環(huán)水，用真空裝置吸出表面多出水。19土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第19頁

Weaknessesofearthandrockfill填土和填石弱點Soilsandrockfragmentslackthestrengthofconcrete，aremuchmorepermeable，andpossesslessresistancetodeteriorationanddisturbancebyflowingwater．缺乏混凝土強度土和巖塊滲透性更大，而且抗流水損壞和干擾能力差。Thesedisadvantagesarecompensatedforbyamuchlowercostandbytheabilityofearthfilltoadapttodeformationcausedbymovementsinthedamfoundation．這些缺點能夠由更低成本，以及填土能適應大壩基礎(chǔ)運動造成變形能力來賠償。Thisassumes，ofcourse，sufficientusablesoilavailableclosetothedamsite．當然，這是假定在壩址附近有足夠可用土壤。20土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第20頁Weaknessesofearthandrockfill填土和填石弱點Inbaremountaincountryitmaybenecessarytoquarryrockandconstructarockfillratherthananearthfilldam．在山脈都光禿禿國家，有必要開采巖石，修建一座填石壩而不是填土壩。Earthfillisofcoursemoreeconomical，andoftenasuitableborrowareacanbefoundclosetothesite．當然，填土是經(jīng)濟，而且通常在壩址附近能找到適當借土地方。Soilconsistsofsolidparticleswithwaterandairinbetween．土壤由固體顆粒和水以及中間空氣組成。Whenthesoiliscompressedbyloading，asoccursindamconstruction，somedrainageofairandwatertakesplace，causinganincreaseinpressuresbetweenthesolidparticles．當土壤受到荷載壓力時，就像發(fā)生在大壩修建過程中，空氣和水就會被排出，這么就會造成固體顆粒之間壓力增加。21土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第21頁Weaknessesofearthandrockfill填土和填石弱點Whenthereisahighrateofseepage，thesoiltendstodevelopdifferentialpressuresandreachaconditioncalledquick，inwhichitbehavesasafluid．當滲流速度很高時，土壤往往會產(chǎn)生不一樣壓力，到達一個被稱為流動狀態(tài)，這時它表現(xiàn)出特征就像流體。Evenifitdoesnotreachthiscondition，thereisoftensomeweakeningofitsstructure，andstepsmustbetakentocounterthis．即使它沒有到達這種狀態(tài)，通常它結(jié)構(gòu)已經(jīng)很脆弱了，必須采取一些步驟來預防這種現(xiàn)象。22土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第22頁theEarthquakeProblem地震問題

Manylargedamshavebeenbuiltintheseismicallyactiveregionsoftheworld，includingJapan，thewesternUnitedStates，NewZealand，theHimalayas，andtheMiddleEast．許多已經(jīng)修建大型水壩都處于世界上地震活動區(qū)，包含日本，美國西部，新西蘭，喜馬拉雅山脈和中東。In1968，theTokachiearthquakedamaged93damsinHonshu，themainJapaneseIsland；allwereembankmentdamsofrelativelysmallheight．

1968年，Tokachi地震毀壞了本州（日本最大島嶼）93座大壩；它們都是高度相對較矮堤壩。Despiteagreatdealofworkonthedistributionofseismicactivity，themeasurementofstronggroundmotions，andtheresponseofdamstosuchmotions，earthquakedesignofdamsremainsimprecise．盡管針對地震活動分布、強地層運動量測及水壩對這種運動反應做了大量工作，水壩地震設(shè)計依然不夠準確。

23土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第23頁Tokachiearthquake24土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第24頁theEarthquakeProblem地震問題

Thecharacteristicsofstronggroundmotionsatagivensitecannotbepredicted，andalltypesofdamspossesssomedegreeoffreedom，imperfectelasticity，andimprecisedamping．一個特定地點強地層運動特征不能被預測，全部類型水壩都含有一定自由度，不完全彈性和不準確阻尼。Nevertheless，thedigitalcomputerandmodeltestinghavegivenpromiseofconsiderableprogress．然而，數(shù)字計算機和模型試驗已經(jīng)給這些方面帶來了相當大進步。Itisnowpossibletocalculatetheresponseofaconcretedamtoanyspecifiedgroundmotion；thishasbeendonefortheTang-eSoleymanDaminIranandtheHendrikVerwoerdDaminSouthAfrica．現(xiàn)在要計算混凝土大壩對任何特定地層運動反應已經(jīng)成為可能；

Therehasalsobeenconsiderableadvanceinthetheoreticalestimationoftheeffectsofgroundmotiononembankmentdams．在地層運動對堤壩影響理論評定方面也已經(jīng)取得了相當大進步。25土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第25頁theTang-eSoleymanDam26土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第26頁theHendrikVerwoerdDam27土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第27頁Thistextintroducedthedefinition,thecomponentsandtypesofdams.Wecanalsolearnsomebasicproblemsindamdesign,suchassiteinvestigationandtesting,problemsofmaterialsandtheearthquakeproblemfromthistext.這篇文章介紹了水壩定義，組成部分和類型。我們還能夠從文章中了解到水壩設(shè)計過程中一些基本問題，比如現(xiàn)場調(diào)查和試驗，材料問題，以及地震問題。要求：掌握本課介紹專業(yè)知識和翻譯方法。BriefSummary28土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第28頁Lesson

11

HighwayEngineering

公路工程Newwordsandphrases:abuttingspecdlativetraversebenefitrecreationallogicallygradationexpresswaycompactaccommodatefrequencycalicheoysterbituminouscatchbasinadverseprecipitationphotogrammetricoutletbarrierpneunatic-tiredroller汽胎壓路機publicutilities公共設(shè)施calciumchloride氯化鈣guardrail護欄，護軌29土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第29頁Words1.abutting毗連，鄰接如：abuttingbuilding毗連建筑物

abuttingjoint對接,毗連接頭

abuttinglot相鄰地段10.accommodate供給，提供，容納，適應如：accommodateoneselfto使自己適應于

accommodateoneselftonewconditions適應新情況

accommodatesb.with向某人提供16.adverse相反，不利，敵正確，逆如：adversealtitude(跳傘)不利高度

adversecircumstances逆境

adverseconditions不利條件，有害狀態(tài)

adversecurrent逆流30土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第30頁HighwayEngineeringHighwayengineeringincludeshighwayplanning,location,design,andmaintenance.公路工程包含公路規(guī)劃、定位、設(shè)計和維修。Beforethedesignandconstructionofanewhighwayorhighwayimprovementcanbeundertaken,theremustbegeneralplanningandconsiderationoffinancing.在著手做一條新建公路或改建公路設(shè)計和施工之前，必須做總體規(guī)劃和資金考慮。Aspartofgeneralplanning,itisdecidedwhatthetrafficneedsoftheareawillbeforaconsiderableperiod,generally20years,andwhatconstructionwillmeetthoseneeds.作為總體規(guī)劃一部分，要決定：在相當長時期內(nèi)，通常是，該區(qū)域交通需要；以及哪種施工能夠滿足這些需要。31土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第31頁HighwayEngineeringToassesstrafficneedsthehighwayengineercollectsandanalyzesinformationaboutthephysicalfeaturesofexistingfacilities,thevolume,distribution,andcharacterofpresenttraffic,andthechangestobeexpectedinthesefactors.

為了確定交通需要，公路工程師搜集和分析關(guān)于已經(jīng)有設(shè)施物理特征，當前交通量、交通分布和交通特征，以及在這些原因上要做改變等信息。Thehighwayengineermustdeterminethemostsuitablelocation,layout,andcapacityofthenewroutesandstructures.

公路工程師必須確定最適當位置、布局和新線新結(jié)構(gòu)通行能力。Frequently,apreliminaryline,orlocation,andseveralalternateroutesarestudied.

通常，要仔細考慮初步線形，或定位，以及幾條可選擇路線。32土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第32頁HighwayEngineeringThedetaileddesignisnormallybegunonlywhenthepreferredlocationhasbeenchosen.按通例，只有當更加好線位被選擇以后，才開始詳細設(shè)計。Inselectingthebestroute,carefulconsiderationisgiventothetrafficrequirements,terraintobetraversed,valueoflandneededfortheright-of-way,andestimatedcostofconstructionforthevariousplans.

在選擇最正確線路時，要仔細考慮交通需求、要經(jīng)過地形、道路用地所需土地價值、以及不一樣方案預估施工造價。Thephotogrammetricmethod,whichmakesuseofaerialphotographs,isusedextensivelytoindicatethecharacteroftheterrainonlargeprojects,whereitismosteconomical.利用航空拍攝技術(shù)攝影制圖方法被廣泛地利用起來顯示大型工程地形特征，在大型工程中采取這種方法是最經(jīng)濟。

33土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第33頁HighwayEngineeringOnsmallprojects,ground-mappingmethodsarepreferred.對于小型工程，就寧可選擇地面制圖方法。Financingconsiderationsdeterminewhethertheprojectcanbecarriedoutatonetimeorwhetherconstructionmustbeinstages,witheachstageinitiatedasfundsbecomeavailable.資金方面考慮決定著工程是否能一次實施或者必須分階段施工，每個階段都只有當能夠取得資金時候才開工。Indecidingthebestmethodoffinancingthework,theengineermakesananalysisofwhomitwillbenefit.在確定為工程集資最好方法過程中，工程師要分析工程將對誰有利。Importanthighwaysandstreetsbenefit,invaryingdegrees,threegroups:users,ownersofadjacentproperty,andthegeneralpublic.主要公路和街道在不一樣程度上對三組人群有利：使用者、鄰近房產(chǎn)全部者、以及全體公眾。34土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第34頁HighwayEngineeringUsersofimprovedhighwaysbenefitfromdecreasedcostoftransportation,greatertravelcomfort,increasedsafety,andsavingoftime.改進了公路使用者從降低運輸成本、更舒適旅行、增加安全感、和節(jié)約時間中得到好處。Theyalsoobtainrecreationalandeducationalbenefits.

他們還能夠取得消遣和教育好處。Ownersofabuttingoradjacentpropertymaybenefitfrombetteraccess,increasedpropertyvalue,moreeffectivepoliceandfireprotection,improvedstreetparking,greaterpedestriantrafficsafety,andtheuseofthestreetright-of-wayforthelocationofpublicutilities,suchaswaterlinesandsewers.

鄰近房產(chǎn)全部者能夠從更加好靠近機會、增加房價、更高效治安和防火、改進街道草坪、更安全行人交通、和公眾設(shè)施位置街道優(yōu)先權(quán)使用，比如水管和污水管這些方面取得利益。35土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第35頁HighwayEngineeringEvaluationofvariousbenefitsfromhighwayconstructionisoftendifficultbutisamostimportantphaseofhighwayengineering.

從公路建設(shè)中獲取不一樣利益評價通常是公路工程中極難但又是最主要一個階段。Somebenefitscanbemeasuredwithaccuracy,buttheevaluationofothersismorespeculative.一些利益能夠準確地推測出來，而另一些就顯得更投機了。Asaresultnumerousmethodsareusedtofinanceconstruction,andmuchengineeringworkmaybeinvolvedinselectingthebestprocedure.

結(jié)果，許多方法就被用來為建設(shè)集資，很多工程項目可能就牽涉到選擇最正確做法。36土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第36頁Environmentalevaluation環(huán)境評價Theenvironmentalimpactofconstructinghighwayshasreceivedincreasedattentionandimportance.

修建公路對環(huán)境影響已經(jīng)受到了越來越多注意和重視。Manyprojectshavebeendelayedandnumerousotherscanceledbecauseofenvironmentalproblems.

許多工程已經(jīng)被推遲，其它很多已經(jīng)被取消，就是因為環(huán)境問題。Theenvironmentalstudyorreportcoversmanyfactors,includingnoisegeneration,airpollution,disturbanceofareastraversed,destructionofexistinghousing,andpossiblealternateroutes.

環(huán)境研究或匯報包含了許多原因：噪音產(chǎn)生、空氣污染、對被穿過區(qū)域干擾、原有房屋毀壞、和可能供選擇線路。37土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第37頁Right-of-wayacquisition道路用地取得Highwayengineersmustalsoassistintheacquisitionofright-of-wayneededfornewhighwayfacilities.公路工程師還必須幫助新公路設(shè)施所需道路用地取得。Acquisitionofthelandrequiredforconstructionofexpresswaysleadingintothecentralbusinessareasofcitieshasprovedextremelydifficult；實踐證實，要取得建設(shè)通向城市商業(yè)區(qū)高速公路所需土地非常困難；thepublicisdemandingthattrafficengineersworkcloselywithcityplanners,architects,sociologists,andallgroupsinterestedinbeautificationandimprovementofcitiestoassurethatexpresswaysextendingthroughmetropolitanareasbebuiltonlyaftercoordinatedevaluationofallmajorquestions,includingthefollowing：公眾現(xiàn)在要求交通工程師與城市規(guī)劃師、建筑師、社會學家、及一切對城市環(huán)境美化和改進有興趣團體親密合作，以確保經(jīng)過市區(qū)高速公路是在對全部主要問題都進行過一樣考評之后建造，這些問題包含：38土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第38頁Right-of-wayacquisition道路用地取得(1)Issufficientattentionbeingpaidtobeautificationoftheexpresswayitself?高速公路本身美化受到足夠重視了嗎？(2)Wouldachangeinlocationpreservemajornaturalbeautiesofthecity?在線位處改變將保持城市主要自然美嗎？(3)Couldadepresseddesignbelogicallysubstitutedforthosesectionswhereanelevatedexpresswayisproposed?理論上一個降低設(shè)計能代替抬高高速公路斷面嗎？(4)Canthegeneraldesignbeimprovedtoreducethenoisecreatedbylargevolumesoftraffic?為了降低由大交通量產(chǎn)生噪音，能改進總體設(shè)計嗎？(5)Aresomesectionsofthecitybeingisolatedbytheproposedlocation?城市一些區(qū)域正在被那些推薦線位隔離開嗎？39土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第39頁Detaileddesign詳細設(shè)計Detaileddesignofahighwayprojectincludespreparationofdrawingsorblueprintstobeusedforconstruction.

公路工程詳細設(shè)計包含對用來施工圖紙或藍圖準備。Theseplansshow,forexample,thelocation,thedimensionsofsuchelementsasroadwaywidth,thefinalprofilefortheroad,thelocationandtypeofdrainagefacilities,andthequantitiesofworkinvolved,includingearthworkandsurfacing.比如，這些圖紙表明了位置，一些元素如道路寬度尺寸，道路最終斷面圖，排水設(shè)施位置和類型，以及包括到包含土方工程和路面工程等工程數(shù)量。40土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第40頁Soilstudies土壤研究Inplanningthegradingoperationsthedesignengineerconsidersthetypeofmaterialtobeencounteredinexcavatingorincuttingawaythehighpointsalongtheprojectandhowthematerialremovedcanbestbeutilizedforfillorforconstructingembankmentsacrosslowareaselsewhereontheproject.

在設(shè)計土地平整工序時，負責設(shè)計工程師要考慮開挖工程沿線高地時會碰到土層材料類型和怎樣在穿過工程其它地方低地時最好利用這些被挖出材料作為填土或建造路基。Forthistheengineermustanalyzethegradationandphysicalpropertiesofthesoil,determinehowtheembankmentscanbestbecompacted,andcalculatethevolumeofearthworktobedone.

因為這，工程師必須分析土壤層次和物理特征，確定怎樣才能最好地壓實路堤，計算將要處理土方工程量。41土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第41頁Soilstudies土壤研究Electroniccalculatingproceduresarenowsometimesusedforthelaststep.Electronicequipmenthasalsospeededupmanyotherhighwayengineeringcalculations.現(xiàn)在，電子計算程序有時被用在最終一個步驟。電子設(shè)備也已經(jīng)加速了許多其它公路工程計算。Powerfulandhighlymobileearth-movingmachineshavebeendevelopedtopermitrapidandeconomicaloperations.

大功率、高度機動運土機械已經(jīng)被設(shè)計出來，于是操作也就越快越經(jīng)濟。42土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第42頁Surfacing鋪面Selectionofthetypeandthicknessofroadwaysurfacingtobeconstructedisanimportantpartofdesign.新建道路路面類型和厚度選擇是設(shè)計一個主要部分。Thetypechosendependsuponthemaximumloadstobeaccommodated,thefrequencyoftheseloads,andotherfactors.

類型選擇取決于將負擔最大荷載，這些荷載頻率，以及其它原因。Forsomeroutes,trafficvolumemaybesolowthatnosurfacingiseconomicallyjustifiedandnaturalsoilservesastheroadway.

對于一些線路，交通量可能會很低以至于不用路面在經(jīng)濟上都是合理，天然土壤就能夠直接為道路服務。Astrafficincreases,asurfacingofsandyclay,crushedslag,crushedstone,caliche,crushedoystershells,oracombinationofthesemaybeapplied.

伴隨交通量增加，就可能會用到沙粘土，碎礦渣，碎石頭，生硝，碎牡蠣殼，或這些混合物做成路面。43土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第43頁Surfacing鋪面Ifgravelisused,itusuallycontainssufficientclayandfinematerialtohelpstabilizethesurfacing.假如用了礫石，通常它包含了足夠粘土和細密材料以幫助路面穩(wěn)定。Gravelsurfacesmaybefurtherstabilizedbyapplicationofcalciumchloride,whichalsoaidsincontrollingdust.

加了氯化鈣礫石路面可能愈加穩(wěn)定，氯化鈣在控制灰塵方面也有幫助。AnothersurfacingiscomposedofPortlandcementandwatermixedintotheupperfewinchesofthesubgradeandcompactedwithrollers.

另一個路面是由波特蘭水泥和水組成，它們在路基上面幾英尺混合，然后用滾筒碾壓。44土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第44頁Surfacing鋪面Thisprocedureformsasoil-cementbasethatcanbesurfacedwithbituminousmaterials.

這種方法形成了一個土壤－水泥基礎(chǔ)，上面能夠用瀝青材料鋪面。Roadwaystocarrylargevolumesofheavyvehiclesmustbecarefullydesignedandmadeofconsiderablethickness.要運行大量重型汽車道路必須仔細設(shè)計，必須做得有足夠厚度。45土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第45頁Surfacing46土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第46頁Drainagestructures排水結(jié)構(gòu)Muchofhighwayengineeringisdevotedtotheplanningandconstructionoffacilitiestodrainthehighwayorstreetandtocarrystreamsacrossthehighwayright-of-way.許多公路工程都要作一些設(shè)施（為公路或街道排水設(shè)施，供穿過公路用地溪流經(jīng)過設(shè)施）規(guī)劃和建設(shè)。Removalofsurfacewaterfromtheroadorstreetisknownassurfacedrainage.從道路或街道排除表面水被稱為地表排水。Itisaccomplishedbyconstructingtheroadsothatithasacrownandbyslopingtheshouldersandadjacentareassoastocontroltheflowofwatereithertowardexistingnaturaldrainage,suchasopenditches,orintoastormdrainagesystemofcatchbasinsandundergroundpipes.它是這么被實現(xiàn)：經(jīng)過修建道路方便于它有一個頂峰并把肩部和附近區(qū)域向外傾斜方便控制水流向已經(jīng)有天然排水結(jié)構(gòu)，比如開放壕溝，或流進雨水井雨水系統(tǒng)和地下管道。47土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第47頁Drainagestructures排水結(jié)構(gòu)Ifastormdrainagesystemisused,asitwouldbewithcitystreets,thedesignengineermustgiveconsiderationtothetotalareadrainingontothestreet,themaximumrateofrunoffexpected,thedurationofthedesignstorm,theamountofpondingallowableateachcatchbasin,andtheproposedspacingofthecatchbasinsalongthestreet.

假如使用雨水排水系統(tǒng)話，就像在城市街道上一樣，設(shè)計師必須考慮街道上總排水面積，最大可能流速，設(shè)計暴雨連續(xù)時間，每個雨水井允許蓄水量，以及雨水井沿街道推薦間距。Fromthisinformationthedesiredcapacityoftheindividualcatchbasinandthesizeoftheundergroundpipingnetworkarecalculated.從這些信息，就能夠計算出每個雨水井要求容量，和地下管網(wǎng)尺寸。48土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第48頁Drainagestructures排水結(jié)構(gòu)Indesigningfacilitiestocarrystreamsunderthehighwaytheengineermustdeterminetheareatobedrained,themaximumprobableprecipitationoverthedrainagebasin,thehighestexpectedrunoffrate,andthen,usingthisinformation,mustcalculatetherequiredcapacityofthedrainagestructure.

設(shè)計公路下排水設(shè)施時，工程師必須確定需要排水范圍、排水區(qū)域最大可能降雨量，最大可能流速，然后利用這些資料，推算所需排水結(jié)構(gòu)負荷量。Generallydesignsaremadeadequatetoaccommodatenotonlythelargestfloweverrecordedforthatlocationbutthegreatestdischargethatmightbeexpectedunderthemostadverseconditionsforagivennumberofyears.通常，設(shè)計要做得不但能容納這個位置有統(tǒng)計最大流量，而且還要能夠排除給定年限內(nèi)最不利條件下可能出現(xiàn)最大流量。49土木專業(yè)外語Lesson第49頁Drainagestructures排水結(jié)構(gòu)Factorsconsideredincalculatingtheexpectedflowthroughaculvertopeningincludesize,length,andshapeoftheopening,roughnessofthewalls,shapeoftheentranceanddownstreamendoftheconduit,maximumallowableheightofwaterattheentrance,andwaterlevelattheoutlet.