英語國家概況 美國 U7課件

DoYouKnow?FocusIn1GetReady-mainDoYouKnow?Whatprinciplesofcriminalproceedingscanbereflectedinthevideo?1.1DoYouKnow?1.1-videoII■WhataretheprinciplesofAnglo-AmericanCommonLaw?2text-mainHowdoesthecourtsystemoperateintheUnitedStates?HowarethecriminalspunishedintheUnitedStates?WhataretheprinciplesofcourtproceedingsintheUnitedStates?1.FederalcourtsystemTheUSConstitutiononlyvaguelydefinestheorganizationofacourtsystem,callingsimplyforaSupremeCourt,withinferiorcourtstobecreatedbyCongress.IntheJudiciaryActof1789,theFirstCongressdividedthenationintodistricts,anessentialprincipleofdivisionthatcontinuestoday.ThecurrentnationalcourtstructureintheUnitedStates,frombottomtotop,includesdistrictcourts,courtsofappeals,andoneSupremeCourt.2.12.1Thecourtstructure1.FederalcourtsystemTherearecurrently94districtcourts.Eachstatehasatleastonedistrictcourt,andthereisoneintheDistrictofColumbiaandoneinPuertoRico.Largestateshavemorethanone.Thisisthelevelatwhichmostnationalworkisdone.Theremaybeoneormorejudgesateachdistrictcourt.DistrictjudgeshipsarefilledbythePresidentwiththeconsentoftheSenate.Alldistrictjudgesholdofficeforlife,thoughtheycanbeimpeached.Districtcourtsarecourtsoforiginaljurisdiction,andso,ifoneviolatesafederallaw,hewillbechargedinadistrictcourt.Thesearetheonlynationalcourtsthatusegrandjuriesandpetitjuries.Districtcourt2.1Courtofappeals2.1JudicialcircuitsofcourtsofappealsMoststateshaveahierarchicalsystemaswell,rangingfromlowercourtstoastatesupremecourt.Thesecourtstrycivil(suchasdivorce)andcriminal(suchasmurder)casesinwhichstatelawsareviolated.Nearlyallcasesinvolvingdisputesaboutpropertyordivorce,ormurder,theft,assaultortrafficoffences,greatorsmall,aredealtwithbytherelevantstate’shierarchofcity,countyandstatecourtsinaccordancewithstatelaw.Eachstatehasasupremecourtofappeal,butotherwisetheirsystemsvaryfromonetoanother.2.12.Statecourtsystem2.13.DepartmentofJusticeDepartmentofJusticeorganizationWhataretheprinciplesofAnglo-AmericanCommonLaw?TheU.S.legalsystemisbasedonCommonLaw,broughtoverfromEngland,andonthelawsandordinancespassedbystatelegislaturesandbyotherbodiestowhichstatepowerhasbeendelegated.Anglo-AmericanCommonLawisbasedonthesupposedreasonableperson’sviewofwhatisrightandfair.Ithasbeenlikenedtoa“wall”,withbricksbeingaddedtoitfromtimetotimeintheformofcourtdecisionsandnoticesstuckonitintheformofstatutes.Eachdecisioncreatesaprecedent,andforanyparticularcaseacourtmust,asfaraspractical,followaprecedentsetbyahighercourt’spreviousdecision.Butmostofthe“wall”isbynowcoveredwithnotices—specially,statues,etc.2.22.2especiallystatues,etc.Infact,most,butnotall,ofthelawsinforceintheU.S.arestatutes.Althoughthelegislatorshavetriedtoensurethatthemeaningofthestatuesisquiteclear,thereisstillplentyofscopeforargumentincourtsabouttheapplicationofstatutesorCommonLawtoparticularcases.Therefore,Americanlawoftengetsinterpretedandreinterpretedbyjudges,makingpreviousprecedentsnullandvoid,andreplacingthemwithnewones.WhataretheprinciplesofAnglo-AmericanCommonLaw?1.Theadversarysystem2.3Americanlegalproceedingsinbothcriminalandcivilcasesarebasedontheadversarysystem,bywhichcompetingpartiesincourtpresenttheirviewstoanimpartialthirdparty.Underitsproceduralrules,evidenceprovidedbythepartiesinvolvedispresentedinafairandorderlymanner.Atrialundertheadversaryprocessisdesignedtodeterminethefactsundertheappropriatelawandtoresolvecasesbyproducingajudgment.However,itistheimpartialthirdparty(judgeorjury)thatdecidesthecaseonthebasisoftheevidencepresentedtothecourt.2.3Civilcasesinfederalandstatecourtsaredividedintogroups.Themajoritydealwithmatterssuchasaccidentandpersonalinjuryclaims.Theplaintiffservesdocumentsonthedefendant,andunlessthecaseissettledoutofcourt,itgoestotrialbeforeajudgeandsometimesajury.Inmoreseriouscases,ajurytrialmustbeheld.Amajorityjurydecisionispermittedincivilcasesinsomestates.2.Civilproceedings2.33.Criminalproceedingscannotforceaconfessionfromaprisonerorsuspectbyduressorthreats.Norcanlawenforcementinstitutionsholdpersonsformorethantwodayswithoutchargingthemwithacriminaloffence.Lengthyimprisonmentinisolationpriortoatrialisillegalandanyconfessionobtainedbythepoliceundersuchcircumstancesisnotacceptabletoacourt.Needlesstosay,thesesafeguardsarenotalwaysobservedandindividualrightsareoccasionallysubjecttoabuses.2.34.TrialbyjuryTrialbyjuryisafundamentaltraditionintheUnitedStatesandisguaranteedinindictable(serious)criminalcases,thoughitmayalsobeemployedinothercriminalcases.Therearetwotypesofjuriesservingdistinctfunctionsinthefederaltrialcourts:trialjuries(alsoknownaspetitjuries),andgrandjuries.Acivilpetitjuryistypicallymadeupof6to12persons.Inacivilcase,theroleofthejuryistolistentotheevidencepresentedatatrial,todecidewhetherthedefendantinjuredtheplaintifforotherwisefailedtofulfillalegaldutytotheplaintiff,andtodeterminewhatthecompensationorpenaltyshouldbe.Acriminalpetitjuryisusuallymadeupof12members.2.34.TrialbyjuryJurydutystamp1.CrimerateintheUnitedStates2.4Statistics,whetherfromofficialorpersonalexperiencesurveys,appeartoshowthattheU.S.hasahighoverallcrimeratebothinrealtermsandincomparisonwithotherWesterncountries.Muchofthisisassociatedwithprofessionalcrimeorganizations,localstreetgangs,anddrugdealings.PollsrevealthatfearofcrimeinhomesandneighborhoodisveryhighintheU.S.,particularlyamongwomen.However,crimeisnotevenlyspreadacrossthecountry;instead,itislargelyconcentratedinurbanareas,especiallybigcities.Additionally,expertsoninternational2.42.PoliceInresponsetothegrowingcrimerate,theU.S.governmenthasrecentlytriedhardtostrengthenitslawenforcementforce.Overthepastdecade,manymorepeople,bothofficersandcivilians,havebeenaddedtothelawenforcementintheU.S.,farexceedingthefigureof1997,when553,000and212,000wererespectivelyregisteredasofficersandciviliansinthepoliceforceandthecourtsystem.Asarule,theimplementationofstatelawiscarriedoutbythepoliceanddetectivesinthecity,andbysheriffsandconstablesinruralareas.2.42.PoliceStatepolice3.FBI2.4Bycontrast,federalcrimesaremainlytheresponsibilityoftheFederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI),whichalsoprovidestechnicalassistancetostateandlocallawenforcementagencies.TheFBIoftenworksinconjunctionwithotherfederalagencies,includingtheU.S.CoastGuard(USCG)andU.S.CustomsandBorderProtection(CBP)inseaportandairportsecurity,andtheNationalTransportationSafetyBoard(NTSB)ininvestigatingairplanecrashesandothercriticalincidents.ImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement(ICE)istheonlyotheragencywiththeclosestamountofinvestigativepower.InthewakeoftheSeptember11attacks,theFBImaintainsaroleinmostfederalcriminalinvestigations.3.1TrueorFalseMultipleChoiceDiscussion1.TheU.S.Constitutiondefinestheorganizationofacourtsystem,includingaSupremeCourtandinferiorcourts.2.IntheUnitedStates,eachstatehasonedistrictcourt.3.Districtcourtsaretheonlynationalcourtsthatusegrandjuriesandpetitjuries.4.Allnationalcourtscanreviewdecisionsofstatecourts.5.Atthenationallevel,governmentprosecutionistheresponsibilityoftheSupremeCourt.F()T()F()F()F()TrueorFalse3.16.TheU.S.attorneysareappointedforlifetermstothedistrictcourts.7.Anglo-AmericanCommonLawisbasedonthesupposedreasonableperson’sviewofwhatisrightandfair.8.IntheUnitedStates,allcasesshouldbetriedwithajury.9.Aunanimousdecisionisneededforagrandjurytomakeadecision.10.Federalcrimesaremainlytheresponsibilityofthe

FederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI).F()T()F()3.1TrueorFalseT()F()1. Therearecurrently________districtcourtsintheUnitedStates.

A.52B.54C.92D.94MultipleChoice3.22.Therearecurrently_______courtsofappealsintheUnitedStates.A.10B.11C.12D.13MultipleChoice3.23.__________arguescasesforthegovernmentbeforetheSupremeCourt.A.ChiefJusticeofSupremeCourtB.AttorneyGeneralC.SolicitorGeneralD.PresidentoftheUnitedStatesMultipleChoice3.24.DistrictjudgeshipsarefilledbythePresidentwiththeconsentof_________.A.ChiefJusticeofSupremeCourtB.AttorneyGeneralC.theSenateD.theHouseofRepresentativesMultipleChoice3.25.Generally,thetrialjuryconsistsof_______ordinarycitizens.A.1－6B.6－12C.12－23D.23－30MultipleChoice3.26.Generally,thegrandjuryconsistsof_______ordinarycitizens.A.1－6B.6－12C.12－23D.23－30MultipleChoice3.27.TheSupremeCourtconsistsofachiefjusticeand_______associatejustices. A.7

B.8

C.9

D.10MultipleChoice3.28.IntheUnitedStates,peoplebetweentheagesof_______arethemostinclinedagegrouptocommitcrimes. A.11－19

B.19－24

C.24－45

D.45－54MultipleChoice3.29.InsomeurbanareasintheUnitedStates,murderisthemaincauseofdeathamongnon-Whitemalesbetweentheagesof________. A.11－19

B.19－24

C.24－45

D.45－54MultipleChoice3.210.Asarule,theimplementationofstatelawiscarriedoutbythepoliceanddetectivesinthecity,andby_______inruralareas. A.sheriffs

B.constables

C.magistrates

D.bothAandBMultipleChoice3.2Americansaresaidtobemostprotectiveoftheirindividualrights.Pleasemakesomecommentsonthisparticularstatementandexplainwhy.Discussion3.3Americawasconceivedinliberty,takingfreedomasthefundamentalprincipleofthecountry.TheBillofRightswasratifiedtogetherwiththeU.S.Constitution.TheexpansionoftheWestcementedandconsolidatedAmericans’beliefinliberty.Americans,asanation,areindividualistic,inclinedtoputindividualinterestsabovetheinterestsofthecommunityoreventhecountry.Americanshavealongtraditionofanti-statism,trustingthemselvesmorethantheirgovernment.Hints:

TheAmericanlegalsystem,intheory,delivers“equaljusticeunderlaw”.Butequalityimpliesaninclusivenessthatdoesnotexistinthispunitivejusticestructure.Itismorelikeacastesystem,inwhichthebenefitsareunequallydistributedtotheprivileged,whilethelowercastesgetwhat’sleft.Unequaljusticeisbeingexacerbatedbythecurrenteconomicdownturn.

DoPoorPeopleGetEqualJustice?SylviaClute4FURTHERREADINGInthe1963SupremeCourtdecision,Gideonv.Wainwright,thehighcourtruledthatpoorpeopleaccusedofseriouscrimeswhocannotaffordanattorneymustbeprovidedlegalrepresentationpaidforbythegovernment.Whathappenswhenpublicfundstopayfortheirdefensesimplydonotexist,asisnowthecaseinagrowingnumberofstates?4-1 Inthefaceofcutbacks,publicdefendersinMissouriaresooverworkedandunderfinancedthattheyhavebeguntryingtorejectnewcases.Theirworkloadsarealreadyfarbeyondcapacity.Whenthishappens,whowillstandwiththeaccusedagainstthemightofthestate? Thisquestionbringsustotherealproblem:ourpunitivesystemofjusticepitstheaccusedagainstthestate.ThissystembeganinEnglandinthe12thand13thcenturieswhenauthorizationsorwritsissuedbythekingbecamewidelyusedtorestrictthejurisdictionofthelocalauthorities.Thewritseventuallyledtotheestablishmentofthecommonlaw—lawthatwascommontoallofEngland,andjusticebecamethedomainoftheking.4-24-3

Itwasatthistimethatadecisionofenormousconsequencewasmade,solidifyingthepunitiveapproachtojustice.Thekinginessencedeclaredthat,whenacrimewascommitted,thekingwouldsymbolicallyserveasthevictimofthecrime.Crimebecameframedasthebreakingoftheking’slawagainstmurder,forexample,notastheactualkillingofaperson;orasviolatingthelawagainstlarceny,notasthelosstothepersonwhosepropertywastaken.Inthisway,thedutytoseekvengeanceandimposepunishmentfelltotheking,andnow,inmorerecenttimes,tothestate.4-4Thissystemthatbegancenturiesagoremainslargelyintact.Thisiswhy,incriminalcourtstoday,casesarestyledas“TheCommonwealthofVirginiaversusJohnDoe”or“ThePeopleoftheStateofColoradoversusJaneDoe”.Makingtheking(nowthestate)thevictimgaverisetomanyquestionsaboutfairness,sotherewerelotsofrulesdesignedtorighttheimbalance—oratleasttopreservetheappearanceoffairnessfortheaccused,evenwhensubstancewaslacking.4-5Ourrulesrelatingtofairnessbetweenthestateandtheaccusedgenerallyfallwithinwhatwecalldueprocess.Thesearelegalrulesdesignedtoprotecttheindividualagainstabusesbythestateandincludesuchprotectionsastherightagainstunreasonablesearchandseizure,therighttoatrialbyajuryofone’speers,therighttobeconfrontedbyone’saccusers,andtherighttolegalcounsel.Itisbecausewebasethecriminallawsystemonthekingsymbolicallyservingasthevictimthatthereisasignificantimbalanceofresourcesfortheaccuser(thestate)andtheaccused(theindividualcitizen).Beingconfrontedbythemightofthestate,iftheaccusedlacksthefinancial4-6resourcesofO.J.SimpsonorParisHilton,toooftenalittledueprocessisallthatweprovide,andsometimes,noteventhat.WhatweendupwitharepeoplelikeAlanCrotzerwhospent24yearsinprisonforacrimehedidnotcommit.“Iwaspoorandindigent,”saidCrotzer.“Ididn’thavenopoliticalconnections,butIwasinnocent.Andbecauseofthatfaultinme,Ispentmorethanhalfofmylifeinprison.”ItwasDNAevidencethatmanyyearslaterprovedhisinnocence.4-7Atnopointdoesthepunitivesystemuseorteachtheskillsneededtocreateaharmoniouscivilsociety.That’snotthegoal.Moreover,localwisdomaboutcommunityconditionsthatpromotecrimeandhowtoinvolvefamilies,schools,andneighborhoodsincrimepreventionistoooftenlostwhenthestateassumescontrol.Incontrast,restorativejusticedoesnotfavorsomemorethanothers.Thisparticularmodelofpunitivejusticerecognizesthreekeypartiestocrime:offender,victim,andcommunity.Toservetheneedsofallthree,thismodelisdedicatedtorestoration,healing,responsibility,andprevention.Thetrustandrespectthatthiscanengender4-8permitvoicesofforgivenessandremorsethatunderpinpunitivejusticetobeexpressed.Thehealthycommunitiesthatthismodelcreatesaretherealpathtoasafeandhealthynation,foranationisthecompositeofitscommunities.Inthistimeofbudgetshortfalls,restorativejusticeshouldbeapriority.Therecidivismrateforthepunitivesystemthatishelpingtobreakthebankisdismal.Afifteen-statestudyfoundthat,inonlythreeyears,morethantwo-thirdsofthosereleasedwererearrested.In4-9contrast,itisnotunusualfortherecidivismrateforparticipantsinrestorativejusticeprogramstobearound10percentinthethreeyearsafterrelease.That’salotofmoneysaved.Whenallissaidanddone,theretributionandrevengeofthepunitivesystemisnotagoodinvestment,ingoodtimesorinbad.Castesystem:Atypeofsocialstructurewhichdividespeopleonthebasisofinheritedsocialstatus.Withinacastesystem,peoplearerigidlyexpectedtomarryandinteractwithpeopleofthesamesocialclass.Indiaisawellknownexampleofthecastesystem,althoughvariousfo