現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)自考本科00830課件

1、Modern Linguistics作者：睿智婉心Modern Linguistics作者：睿智婉心Table of ContentChapter 1Introduction Chapter 6PragmaticsChapter 2PhonologyChapter 7Historical LinguisticsChapter 3MorphologyChapter 8SociolinguisticsChapter 4syntaxChapter 9PsycholinguisticsChapter 5SemanticsChapter 10Language AcquisitionTable of Co

2、ntentChapter 1IntroChapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 11What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.Chapter 11What is linguisticChapter 11The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is

3、 often called general linguistics.普通語言學(xué)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.語音學(xué)The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 音系學(xué)The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morp

4、hology. 形態(tài)學(xué)The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. 句法學(xué)The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 語義學(xué)The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 語用學(xué)The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. 社會

5、語言學(xué)The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. 語言心理學(xué)The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （應(yīng)用語言學(xué)） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic princi

6、ples and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人類語言學(xué)） neurological linguistics, （神經(jīng)語言學(xué)） mathematical linguistics, （數(shù)字語言學(xué)）and computational linguistics. （計(jì)算機(jī)語言學(xué)）Chapter 11The scop

7、e of linguChapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive and descriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is

8、said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Chapter 11Some important disChapter

9、 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsSynchronic and diachronic The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writi

10、ng Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken

11、language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Chapter 11Some important disChapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsLangue and parole The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and par

12、ole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what lingui

13、sts should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Chapter 11Some important disChapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsCompetence and performance Proposed by American lingui

14、st N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. Chapter 11Some i

15、mportant disChapter 12What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomskys definition is quite different, it focus on the

16、 purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.Chapter 12What is language?LChapter 12Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal

17、system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary. Eg: different sounds are used to refer to

18、 the same object in different languages.Productivity Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before

19、.DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matte

20、rs in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.

21、This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 12Design featuresDesChapter 2Chapter 2Chapter 21The phonic medium of languageSpeech and writing are the two media used by natural l

22、anguages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance

23、than that of writing. The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (語言的聲音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （語音）.Chapter 21The phonic medium Chapter 22Organs of spe

24、echThe pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔 the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying across the glottis (聲門) are the voc

25、al cords (聲帶). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound. The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.Chapter 22Organs of speechThChapter 22Orthographic representation of speech sounds broa

26、d and narrow transcriptionsIPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 國際音標(biāo)There are two ways to transcribe speech soundsOne is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符號) only, called broad transcription (寬式音標(biāo)). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (變音符號), called

27、 narrow transcription 實(shí)例：對pit/spit中p音的比較：pit中的p是送氣音，在窄式音標(biāo)中標(biāo)為上標(biāo)，寫作：phit spit中的p是不送氣音，在寬式音標(biāo)中不作標(biāo)示，寫作：spit對leaf/feel/build/health中l(wèi)音的比較：Leaf中l(wèi) 在元音前，叫清晰音，在寬式音標(biāo)中不作標(biāo)示，寫作：li:fFeel中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在單詞結(jié)尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音標(biāo)中加變音符號Build中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在另一個輔音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音標(biāo)中也加變音符號Health中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在齒音前，受其影響叫齒音l，在窄式音標(biāo)中加變音符號IIChapter 22Orthographic repreCha

28、pter 22Classification of English speech soundsClassification of English consonants按發(fā)音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k g Fricative 擦音：f v s z s h Affricate 塞擦音：tdLiquid流音：l rNasal鼻音：m n Glide滑音：w j按發(fā)音部位分 Bilabial雙唇音：p b m w Labiodental唇齒音：f vDental齒音： Alveolar齒齦音：t d s z n l rPalatal硬腭音：tdiVelar軟

29、腭音：k g Glottal聲門音：hChapter 22Classification of Chapter 22Classification of English speech sounds Classification of English vowels按舌頭在口中的位置分Front vowel前元音：i: i e a Central vowel中元音：: Back vowel后元音：u: u : a:按口形的大小分Close vowel閉元音：i: i u: uSemi-close vowel半閉元音：e :Open vowel開元音： aSemi-open vowel半開元音： : a

30、:按唇形是否為圓分Unrounded vowel不圓唇元音：i: i e a : a:rounded vowel圓唇元音：u: u : 按語音的長短分Long vowel長元音i: :a: u: :Short vowel短元音i e a u 在元音中還有一些(diphthong)雙元音，包括：ei ai u a u i i e uChapter 22Classification of Chapter 23Phonology and phoneticsBoth phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of

31、 a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communica

32、tion. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.Example:單詞leap和peel中的l音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同對意義的表達(dá)并無關(guān)聯(lián)。所以，如果從語音學(xué)角度來說，這是兩個不同的語音，而從音系學(xué)角度來說，這是同一基本實(shí)體的兩個變體。音系學(xué)家對不引起意義區(qū)別的語音間的細(xì)微區(qū)別并不關(guān)注，但語音學(xué)家卻要對所有的語音進(jìn)行描述，不論它們之間的差別對表達(dá)意義有沒有關(guān)系。Chapter 23Phonology and phonChapter 23Phone, phoneme,

33、 and allophonePhone Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phonemePhonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is call

34、ed phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.allophoneThe different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Ch

35、apter 23Phone, phoneme, anChapter 23Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same p

36、honeme. Phonemic contrastThe former is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish plementary distributionThe latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments.A basic way to

37、determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way e

38、xcept for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.Chapter 23Phonemic contrast,Chapter 23Some rules in phonologysequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.重

39、要的規(guī)則I.如果單詞以l 或r 為首，其后的一個語音必定為元音，如rude, last, II.如果三個輔音同時出現(xiàn)在單詞詞首，則：第一音位必定為/s/，第二音位必定是/p/t/k/，第三音位必定是/l/r/w/，如strict, splendid.III.塞擦音td和咝音s z 后不能緊跟另一個咝音，如teach變復(fù)數(shù)為teachesti:tiz。IV.制約音位模式的規(guī)則是隨語言的不同而不同，英語中適用，其它語言卻不適用。assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”

40、a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.重要的規(guī)則I.元音后緊跟一個鼻音時，該元音要鼻音話。如bean/ green 中的i:音。II.在一個單詞中，鼻音n所處的發(fā)音部位和緊隨其后的輔音的發(fā)音部位變得一樣。如correct incorrect。III.語音同化規(guī)則也體現(xiàn)在有關(guān)單詞的拼寫中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因?yàn)閚音同化成了m音。deletion rules The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted alth

41、ough it is orthographically represented.重要的規(guī)則如g音出現(xiàn)在位于詞尾的一個鼻輔音前時要省略。如sign中的g音不發(fā)音。而在加了后綴的signature中，g卻要發(fā)音的。Chapter 23Some rules in phonChapter 23Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonationDistinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemi

42、c features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.Stress重音重要的規(guī)則I.一個單詞如果既可以作名詞，又可以作動詞，則名詞重音在第一個音節(jié)上，相應(yīng)的動詞重音則在第二個音節(jié)上。如import。II.英語復(fù)合詞的重音常在第一個成分上，第二個成分是次重音。如hotdog。Tone 聲調(diào)：英語不是聲調(diào)語言，這里不作研究。Intona

43、tion When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the f

44、irst three.Chapter 23Suprasegmental feaChapter 3Chapter 3Chapter 31DefinitionMorphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivati

45、onal morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.Chapter 31DefinitionMorpholoChapter 32DefinitionMorphemeThe smallest meaningful unit of language。The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.Types of morphe

46、mesFree morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form

47、a word.Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.Chapter 32DefinitionMorphemeChapter 32Types of Bound morphemesBound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself

48、 although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense,

49、degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名詞復(fù)數(shù)-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示現(xiàn)在時的第三人稱單數(shù)-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示過去時-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示進(jìn)行時-er, indicating comparative degree

50、 of adj. and adverbs表示形容詞和副詞比較級-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容詞和副詞最高級-s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名詞的所有格Chapter 32Types of Bound morChapter 32Types of Bound morphemesBound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes Derivational affixes are added to a

51、n existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a b

52、ound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.實(shí)例：Tolerate 詞根toler- 詞綴-ateQuickly 自由語素quick 詞綴-lyCarelessness 自由語素care 詞綴-less 形成的派生詞careless 詞綴-nessAffixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前綴和后綴Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of spe

53、ech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Chapter 32Types of Bound morChapter 33Types of compound words Noun + noun 名詞名詞 如：handbook, su

54、nshineAdjective +noun 形容詞名詞 如：highway, sweetheartAdjective +noun +ed 形容詞名詞ed 如：white-haired, green=eyedVerb +noun 動詞名詞如：pickpocket, drivewayAdverb +noun 副詞名詞 如：downtown, upgradeNoun +verb 名詞動詞如：toothpick, snowfallVerb +adverb 動詞副詞 如：follow-up, kick-offNoun +adjective 名詞形容詞如：world-famous, life-long-i

55、ng form +noun -ing形式名詞如：dining-room, reading-glassesOther forms 其它形式如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots, thank-you noteChapter 33Types of compound Chapter 33Features of compounds拼寫上Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two s

56、eparate words.語法上Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.語義上Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.語音上Phonetically, the stress of a compo

57、und always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.Chapter 33Features of compouChapter 4Chapter 4Chapter 41What is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means tha

58、t sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.Chapter 41What is Syntax?SynChapter 41Syntax as a system of rulesSyntax consists of a set of ab

59、stract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise t

60、he system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.Chapter 41Syntax as a