Chap20收入不平等與貧困

1、收入不平等于貧困Income Inequality and Poverty第20章 Chapter 20收入分配The Distribution of Income一個(gè)人的收入取決于這個(gè)人勞動(dòng)的供給與需求，供給與需求又取決于天賦能力、人力資本、補(bǔ)償性工資差別和歧視等?！癆 persons earnings depend on the supply and demand for that persons labor, which in turn depend on natural ability, human capital, compensating differentials, discri

2、mination, and so on.”不平等的衡量The Measurement of Inequality我們的社會(huì)存在多少不平等 How much inequality is there in our society?有多少人生活在貧困中？ How many people live in poverty?衡量不平等程度時(shí)引起了哪些問(wèn)題？ What problems arise in measuring the amount of inequality?人們通常如何在各收入階級(jí)之間流動(dòng)？ How often do people move among income classes?美國(guó)的收

3、入分配：1998年The Distribution of Income in the USA: 1998美國(guó)的收入不平等U.S. Income InequalityImagine that you. . . . . lined up all of the families in the economy according to their annual income. . . . divided the families into five equal groups (bottom fifth, second fifth, etc.). . . computed the share of to

4、tal income that each group of families received.美國(guó)的收入不平等Income Inequality in the United States近年來(lái)收入不平等增長(zhǎng)的原因Reasons for Recent Increase in Income Inequality下面兩點(diǎn)的出現(xiàn)傾向于降低了對(duì)不熟練勞動(dòng)的需求，而增加了對(duì)熟練勞動(dòng)的需求 The following have tended to reduce the demand for unskilled labor and raise the demand for skilled labor:與低工

5、資國(guó)家國(guó)際貿(mào)易的增長(zhǎng) Increases in international trade with low-wage countries技術(shù)變革 Changes in technology 近年來(lái)收入不平等增長(zhǎng)的原因Reasons for Recent Increase in Income Inequality不熟練工人相對(duì)于熟練工人的工資已經(jīng)下降。 The wages of unskilled workers have fallen relative to the wages of skilled workers.這種相對(duì)工資變動(dòng)加劇了家庭收入的不平等。 This has resulted i

6、n increased inequality in family incomes.婦女運(yùn)動(dòng)于收入分配The Womens Movement and the Income Distribution有工作婦女的百分比從20世紀(jì)50年代的32增加到90年代的54。The percentage of women who hold jobs has risen from about 32 percent in the 1950s to about 54 percent in the 1990s.世界各國(guó)的不平等Income Equality Around the World貧困率The Poverty

7、Rate貧困率是家庭收入低于稱為貧困縣的絕對(duì)水平的人口百分比。The poverty rate is the percentage of the population whose family income falls below an absolute level called the poverty line.貧困線The Poverty Line 貧困線是聯(lián)邦政府提供充分食物成本的大約三倍的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)確定的。 The poverty line is set by the federal government at roughly three times the cost of providin

8、g an adequate diet.05101520251959196919791989Year貧困率The Poverty Rate低于貧困線的人口百分比Poverty rate貧困線與收入不平等The Poverty Line and Income Inequality隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)把整個(gè)收入分配向上推動(dòng)，更多的家庭被推到貧困線之上，這是由于貧困線是絕對(duì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)而不是相對(duì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn) As economic growth pushes the entire income distribution upward, more families are pushed above the poverty li

9、ne because the poverty line is an absolute rather than a relative standard.盡管平均收入持續(xù)增加，但貧困率并沒有下降。 Despite continued economic growth in average income, the poverty rate has not declined.雖然經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)增加了一般家庭的收入，但不平等的增長(zhǎng)使最窮的家庭沒有分享到經(jīng)濟(jì)繁榮的果實(shí)。 Although economic growth has raised the income of the typical family, th

10、e increase in inequality has prevented the poorest families from sharing in this greater economic prosperity.誰(shuí)是窮人Who Is Poor?關(guān)于貧困的三個(gè)事實(shí)Three Facts About Poverty貧困與種族相關(guān) Poverty is correlated with race.貧困與年齡相關(guān) Poverty is correlated with age.貧困與家庭結(jié)構(gòu)相關(guān) Poverty is correlated with family composition.衡量不平等中

11、的問(wèn)題Problems in Measuring Inequality收入分配與貧困率數(shù)據(jù)所給出的生活水平不平等狀況是不完全的，是由于以下原因： Data on income distribution and the poverty rate give an incomplete picture of inequality in living standards because of the following: 實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付 In-kind transfers 生命的經(jīng)濟(jì)周期The economic life cycle 暫時(shí)收入與永久收入 Transitory versus permane

12、nt income實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付In-Kind Transfers以物品和勞務(wù)形式而不是以現(xiàn)金方式支付給予窮人的轉(zhuǎn)移支付稱為實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付。Transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cash are called in-kind transfers.實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付In-Kind Transfers收入分配和貧困率是根據(jù)家庭的貨幣收入進(jìn)行衡量的。 Measurements of the distribution of income and the poverty rate are based on

13、 families money income.沒有把實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付考慮在內(nèi)就大大影響了所衡量的貧困率。 The failure to include in-kind transfers as part of income greatly affects the measured poverty rate.生命的經(jīng)濟(jì)周期The Economic Life Cycle人一生中有規(guī)律的收入變動(dòng)形式稱為生命周期。 The regular pattern of income variation over a persons life is called the life cycle.年輕工人在工業(yè)生涯的初

14、期收入比較低 A young worker has a low income at the beginning of his or her career.隨著工人年齡的增大和驚訝的增加，收入在增加。 Income rises as the worker gains maturity and experience.大約50歲左右，收入達(dá)到高峰。 Income peaks at about age 50.在大約65左右退休后，收入大幅度減少Income falls sharply at retirement, around age 65.暫時(shí)收入與持久收入Transitory versus Per

15、manent Income收入因?yàn)殡S機(jī)的和暫時(shí)的力量而變動(dòng)。Incomes vary because of random and transitory forces.自然條件的變化降低收入 Acts of nature that reduce income由于疾病或經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況導(dǎo)致的暫時(shí)失業(yè) Temporary layoffs due to illness or economic conditions, etc.暫時(shí)收入與持久收入Transitory versus Permanent Income家庭購(gòu)買物品與勞務(wù)的能力主要取決于其持久收入，即正常的或平均的收入。 A familys abilit

16、y to buy goods and services depends largely on its permanent income, which is its normal, or average, income. 持久的收入不包括收入的暫時(shí)變動(dòng)。 Permanent income excludes transitory changes in income.經(jīng)濟(jì)流動(dòng)性Economic Mobility人們?cè)诟魇杖腚A級(jí)之間的變動(dòng)稱為經(jīng)濟(jì)流動(dòng)性。 The movement of people among income classes is called economic mobility.經(jīng)濟(jì)

17、流動(dòng)性在美國(guó)是相當(dāng)普遍的。 Economic mobility is substantial in the U.S. economy.經(jīng)濟(jì)流動(dòng)性的根源Sources of Economic Mobility收入階梯的向上和向下移動(dòng)可能是由于： Movements up and down the income ladder can be due to:好的或壞的運(yùn)氣 Good or bad luck.勤奮工作或懶惰 Hard work or laziness.一代到另一代人經(jīng)濟(jì)成功的持續(xù)性 Persistence of economic success from generation to ge

18、neration.收入再分配的政治哲學(xué)Political Philosophy of Redistributing Income政府對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)不平等應(yīng)當(dāng)做些什么？ What should the government do about economic inequality?僅靠經(jīng)濟(jì)分析不能給我們滿意的答案 Economic analysis alone cannot give us the answer.這個(gè)問(wèn)題是決策者面對(duì)的一個(gè)關(guān)于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的問(wèn)題 The question is a normative one facing policymakers.三種政治哲學(xué)Three Political Ph

19、ilosophies功利主義Utilitarianism自由主義Liberalism自由意志主義Libertarianism功利主義Utilitarianism功利主義聲稱，政府應(yīng)當(dāng)進(jìn)行收入再分配，以使社會(huì)每一成員的效用最大化。 Utilitarianism is the view that government should redistribute income to maximize the total utility of everyone in society.功利主義的奠基人是英國(guó)哲學(xué)家杰瑞米.邊沁 和約翰.斯圖亞特.穆勒。 The founders of utilitariani

20、sm are the English philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.功利主義Utilitarianism功利主義者支持收入再分配是基于邊際效用遞減的假設(shè)。 The utilitarian case for redistributing income is based on the assumption of diminishing marginal utility. 一個(gè)窮人額外一美元收入給這個(gè)窮人帶來(lái)的額外效用大于富人額外一美元帶來(lái)的效用。 An extra dollar of income to a poor person

21、 provides that person with more utility, or well-being, than does an extra dollar to a rich person.自由主義Liberalism自由主義認(rèn)為，收入再分配作為社會(huì)保險(xiǎn)的一種形式，從而使社會(huì)最窮的階層收入水平得到足夠的提高。 Liberalism is the view that income should be redistributed in such a way so that the poorest in society always receive an adequate level of

22、income as a form of social insurance.這種觀點(diǎn)最初優(yōu)哲學(xué)家約翰.羅爾斯提出。 This view was originally developed by the philosopher John Rawls.自由主義Liberalism公共政策應(yīng)當(dāng)建立在最大化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)基礎(chǔ)上，即使社會(huì)最差的人效用或福利最大化。Public policy should be based on the maximin criterion, which seeks to maximize the utility or well-being of the worst-off person

23、 in society.也就是說(shuō)，不是使每個(gè)人的效用綜合最大化，而是使最小效用最大化。That is, rather than maximizing the sum of everyones utility, one should maximize the minimum utility.自由意志主義Liberalism自由意志主義認(rèn)為，政府應(yīng)當(dāng)強(qiáng)調(diào)個(gè)人的權(quán)利，以確保每個(gè)人有同樣使用自己才能并獲得成功的機(jī)會(huì)，而不應(yīng)當(dāng)進(jìn)行收入收入再分配。 Libertarianism is the view that government should enforce individual rights to

24、ensure that everyone has the same opportunity to use his or her talents to achieve success, but should not redistribute income. 自由意志主義者聲稱，機(jī)會(huì)平等比收入平等更重要。 Libertarians argue that equality of opportunity is more important than equality of income.減少貧困的政策Policies to Reduce Poverty最低工資法Minimum-wage laws福利

25、Welfare負(fù)的所得稅Negative income tax實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付In-kind transfers最低工資法Minimum-Wage Laws支持者把最低工資作為幫助窮人的方法。 Advocates view the minimum wage as a way of helping the working poor.批評(píng)者把最低工資看成是對(duì)它想幫助的人的一種傷害。 Critics view the minimum wage as hurting those it is intended to help.最低工資法Minimum-Wage Laws最低工資法的影響效果大小取決于勞動(dòng)的需

26、求彈性。The magnitude of the effects of the minimum wage depends on the elasticity of the demand for labor.最低工資法Minimum-Wage Laws支持者認(rèn)為，不熟練勞動(dòng)的需求是較為缺乏彈性的，所以高水平最低工資所減少的就業(yè)是微不足道的 Advocates argue that the demand for unskilled labor is relatively inelastic, so that a high minimum wage depresses employment only

27、 slightly.批評(píng)者認(rèn)為，勞動(dòng)需求富有彈性，特別是在企業(yè)可以更充分地調(diào)整就業(yè)與生產(chǎn)的長(zhǎng)期中更是如此。 Critics argue that labor demand is more elastic, especially in the long run when firms can adjust employment more fully.福利Welfare政府嘗試通過(guò)福利制度提高窮人生活水平。 The government attempts to raise the living standards of the poor through the welfare system.福利是包

28、括對(duì)貧困家庭收入補(bǔ)貼的多種政府計(jì)劃的廣義術(shù)語(yǔ)。 Welfare is a broad term that encompasses various government programs that supplement the incomes of the needy.對(duì)貧困家庭的暫時(shí)補(bǔ)貼 Temporary Assistance for Needy Families補(bǔ)貼性保障收入 Supplemental Security Income (SSI)負(fù)所得稅Negative Income Tax負(fù)所得稅聚集高收入家庭的稅收，然后轉(zhuǎn)移支付給低收入家庭。A negative income tax c

29、ollects tax revenue from high-income households and gives transfers to low-income households.負(fù)所得稅Negative Income Tax高收入家庭將根據(jù)他們的收入納稅。 High-income families would pay a tax based on their incomes.低收入家庭將得到一種補(bǔ)貼負(fù)稅Low-income families would receive a subsidy a “negative tax.”貧困家庭將得到經(jīng)濟(jì)將主而不用表示需要。Poor families

30、 would receive financial assistance without having to demonstrate need.實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付In-Kind Transfers實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付是以商品或勞務(wù)而不是現(xiàn)金的方式提供給窮困家庭。 In-kind transfers are transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cash. 比若說(shuō)，食品券和醫(yī)療援助。 Food stamps and Medicaid are examples. 實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付In-Kind Transfe

31、rs實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付的支持者認(rèn)為，這種轉(zhuǎn)移支付確保窮人得到他們最需要的東西。 Advocates of in-kind transfers argue that such transfers ensure that the poor get what they most need.現(xiàn)金支付的支持者認(rèn)為，實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付是無(wú)效率的不尊重窮人的。 Advocates of cash payments argue that in-kind-transfers are inefficient and disrespectful.反貧困計(jì)劃和工作激勵(lì)A(yù)ntipoverty Programs and Work I

32、ncentives許多旨在幫助窮人的政府可能無(wú)意中對(duì)鼓勵(lì)窮人依靠自己的力量脫貧產(chǎn)生不利影響。Many policies aimed at helping the poor can have the unintended effect of discouraging the poor from escaping poverty on their own.反貧困計(jì)劃和工作激勵(lì)A(yù)ntipoverty Programs and Work Incentives反貧困計(jì)劃會(huì)影響工作激勵(lì)： An antipoverty program can affect work incentives:一個(gè)家庭需要150

33、00美元維持合理的生活水平 A family needs $15,000 to maintain a reasonable standard of living.政府承諾每個(gè)家庭確保達(dá)到15000美元收入 The government promises to guarantee every family a $15,000 income.任何工作收入在15000美元以下的人沒有保持工作的激勵(lì)，這是因?yàn)檎行н呺H稅率100的政策導(dǎo)致的 Any person making under $15,000 has no incentive to work due to the effective ma

34、rginal tax rate of 100 percent.反貧困計(jì)劃和工作激勵(lì)A(yù)ntipoverty Programs and Work Incentives 工作福利制是一種要求任何一個(gè)得到津貼的人接受一份政府提供的工作的制度。Workfare refers to a system that would require any person collecting benefits to accept a government-provided job.總結(jié)Summary收入分配數(shù)據(jù)表明了我們社會(huì)中存在的巨大不對(duì)稱性。 Data on the distribution of income show wide disparity in our society.最富的20家庭是最窮的20家庭的收入的10被左右。 The richest fifth of the families earns about ten times as much as the