土木工程專業(yè)外語

1、土木工程專業(yè)外語 Civil Engineering Specialty English軍事建筑工程系建筑結(jié)構(gòu)教研室曹保山66893426cbssxSpecialty English and College English (科技英語與英語 )大學(xué)英語科技英語聽、說、讀、寫重點在閱讀、翻譯和寫作。介紹聽和說序言(preface)基礎(chǔ)進階科技文獻的閱讀和翻譯日常應(yīng)用CET4和CET6聽、說、讀、寫詞匯、語法、句型Part One Characteristic of specialty English（科技英語的特點 ）大量使用名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)廣泛使用被動語句非限定動詞后置定語復(fù)合詞與縮略詞長句多種方法

2、表達數(shù)字和否定行文清晰、客觀、精練、嚴密文體簡潔、準(zhǔn)確、清晰信息量大、強調(diào)存在的事實內(nèi)容目的手段一、大量使用名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)(Nominalization )Archimedes first discovered the principle that water is displaced by solid bodies.阿基米德最先發(fā)展固體排水的原理。Archimedes first discovered the principle of displacement of water by solid bodies.Television is the transmission and receptio

3、n of images of moving objects by radio waves.電視通過無線電波發(fā)射和接受活動物體的圖象。名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)the transmission and reception of images of moving objects by radio waves 強調(diào)客觀事實。名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)，一方面簡化了同位語從句，另一方強調(diào)displacement 這一事實二、廣泛使用被動語句(the passive)WHAT?英國利茲大學(xué)John Swales 的統(tǒng)計，科技英語中的謂語至少三分之一是被動態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu)。比較下面兩段短文：We can store electrical ener

4、gy in two metal plates separated by an insulating medium. We call such a device a capacitor, or a condenser, and its ability to store electrical energy capacitance .It is measured in farads. Electrical energy can be stored in two metal plates separated by an insulating medium. Such a device is calle

5、d a capacitor, or a condenser, and its ability to store electrical energy is termed capacitance. It is measured in farads.電能可儲存在由一絕緣介質(zhì)隔開的兩塊金屬板內(nèi)。這樣的裝置稱之為電容器。其儲存電能的能力稱為電容。電容的測量單位是法拉。 WHY?強調(diào)與客觀使用時要注意：主要的信息置于句首 ;盡量避免使用第一、二人稱 A) A direct current is a current which flows always in the direction. B)A direc

6、t current is a current flowing in the same direction. 三、非限定動詞 (the nonrestrictive verb)在科技英語中，不常使用非限制定語從句，而使用非限定動詞，即非謂語動詞 A) In the communications, the problem of electronics is how information is conveyed from one place to another. B) In the communications, the problem of electronics is how to conv

7、ey from one place to another. 使用分詞短語代替定語從句或狀語從句；使用分詞獨立結(jié)構(gòu)代替狀語從句或并列分句；使用不定式短語代替各種從句；介詞十動名詞短語代替定語從句或狀語從句 在科技文中，一般將how，wh-詞引導(dǎo)的從句轉(zhuǎn)換成how,wh-詞引導(dǎo)的不定式短語。從而使句子結(jié)構(gòu)更加簡潔、緊湊 四、后置定語(the postposition)The heat produced is equal to the electrical energy wasted. 產(chǎn)生的熱能等于浪費了的熱能。 過去分詞表被動在科技文中被廣泛應(yīng)用。尤其在一些并列結(jié)構(gòu)的句子中。The forces

8、 due to friction are called frictional forces. 由于摩擦而產(chǎn)生的力稱之為摩擦力。介詞短語due to的使用避免了because從句的使用 In radiation, thermal energy is transformed into radiant energy, similar in nature to light. 熱能在輻射時，轉(zhuǎn)換成性質(zhì)與光相似的輻射能 。The force uptown equals the force downward so that the balloon stays at the level. 向下的力與向上的力相

9、等，所以氣球就保持在這一高度。副詞成對出現(xiàn)，大多表示相反的意思。介詞短語形容詞及形容詞短語的使用副詞分詞During construction, problems often arise which require design changes. 在施工過程中，常會出現(xiàn)需要改變設(shè)計的問題。五、復(fù)合詞與縮略詞 （the compound and the abbreviation）復(fù)合詞從過去的雙詞組合發(fā)展到多詞組合；縮略詞趨向于任意構(gòu)詞 full-enclosed 全封閉的；work-harden 加工硬化； crisscross交叉著；on-and-off-the-road路面越野兩用的； a

10、nti-armored-fighting-vehicle-missile反裝甲車導(dǎo)彈； radiophotography無線電傳真；colorimeter色度計（無連字符復(fù)合詞）復(fù)合詞math (mathematics)數(shù)學(xué)（裁減式縮略詞）lab (laboratory)實驗室 ft (foot/feet)英尺 CAD( computer aided design)計算機輔助設(shè)計縮略詞定語從句六、長句(the long complex sentence)To illustrate with reference to the beam just described, if the short-t

11、ime peak load had been applied early in the life of the member, before time-depended deformations occurred, the sustained-load deflection of step 3 should be calculated using Ie based on the total load-moment diagram( sustained plus and peak load) because the cracking which would result from that lo

12、ad would permanently reduce the stiffness of the member.難點與重點，在以后學(xué)習(xí)中要注意其分析方法長句：為了說明這一點，參照上述的梁，如果短期峰值荷載在隨時間推移而發(fā)生的變形出現(xiàn)之前就作用在梁上，第三步的持續(xù)荷載作用下的變形就應(yīng)根據(jù)總荷載彎矩圖(持續(xù)荷載加峰值荷載)采用Ie來計算，這是因為在該荷載作用下產(chǎn)生的開列將會在整修構(gòu)件使用期內(nèi)使構(gòu)件剛度減小。To illustrate是目的狀語。 if the為條件狀語從句。 beforeoccurred是時間狀語從句，修飾條件狀語從句的謂語had been applied。 he sustaine

13、d-loadshould be calculated為本句的主句 becausewould permanently reduce是固原狀語從句，其中which would result from that load 是cracking的定語從句。先主后次，判斷邏輯各句間關(guān)系語法與常用句型七、多種方法表達數(shù)字和否定(the number and the negation)數(shù)字：數(shù)量和倍數(shù)。The factory turns out 100,000 cars every year. A yard is three times longer than a foot.否定：The object did

14、 not move because I pushed on it. 常見而雙比較復(fù)雜的問題，使用非常靈活為英語特點。 專業(yè)英語的聽與說(listening and speaking)一、常用數(shù)字的英語讀法 （English reading frequently-used numerals） 1/2 one half, a half, one over two 1/3 a third, one third, one over three2/3 two thirds , two over three1/10 a tenth ,one tenth,1/4 a quarter, one quarter

15、, one fourth, one over four3/4 three quarters, three fourthsPart Two Speaking of specialty English（科技英語說 ）常用數(shù)字的讀法常用數(shù)學(xué)符號的讀法土木專業(yè)詞匯的讀法文章的讀法Speaking234/679 two hundred and thirty four over six hundred and seventy nine0.3 zero point three, O point three, naught point three, point three.0.03 zero point ze

16、ro three, O point O three, naught point naught three, point naught three.0.67 zero point six seven, O point six seven, naught point six seven, point six seven,two and a halfthree and three fifthsone hundred thirty seven and three over fourzero point three recurring, point three recurringfive point e

17、ight six seven, six seven recurring2% two percent 2 two per mille3/8% three eighths percent, three eighths of one percent.2/3m two thirds of a meter3/4km three quarters of a kilometer7.8m/s seven point eight meters per second15 fifteen degree Centigrade34 thirty four degrees Fahrenheit10KN ten kilo

18、Newton20mm twenty millimeters二、常用數(shù)學(xué)符號的讀法(English reading for frequently-used mathematical symbols） +plus- minus multiplied by, times divided by plus or minus is equal to, equals, is is identically equal to, identically equals is approximately equal to, approximately equalsthe absolute value of xx ba

19、r, the mean value of x b prime b double prime, b second prime, b two primeb subscript one, b sub one b superscript two, b super twox dot x two dotsfunction f of xDee x ,differential x the n th derivative of y with respect to xthe partial derivative of y with respect to x delintegral between limits a

20、 and b bracket a plus b bracket closed the ratio of a to b x square, x squared, the square of x, the second power of x, x to the second powerthe square root of x the fifth root of x square nth delintegral infinity x cube, x cubed, the cube of x, the third power of x, x to the third power log x to th

21、e base n Factorial x 一、教學(xué)內(nèi)容(the teaching content)Part Three Content and Method (教學(xué)內(nèi)容和方法 )二、學(xué)習(xí)方法(the learning method)建議 精讀文章 閱讀技巧翻譯技巧寫作的基本知識單元2單元i單元n單元1專業(yè)英語內(nèi)容參考大學(xué)英語的學(xué)習(xí)方法：每個人都有依據(jù)自己特點的學(xué)習(xí)方法學(xué)習(xí)進步之表現(xiàn)：英語能力的增強，即聽、說、讀、寫。詞匯：學(xué)習(xí)詞匯于句子中句型：學(xué)習(xí)句型于段落中或文章中。absent: adj. Not present; missing: absent parents.；不存在的；缺乏的（Not

22、 existent; lacking:）a country in which morality is absent.：心不在焉的，不在意的（Exhibiting or feeling inattentiveness）an absent nod；vt.（及物動詞）To keep (oneself) away。They absented themselves from the debate；prep.（介詞）Without:沒有，缺乏：“Absent a legislative fix, this is an invitation for years of litigation” 常用的用法：be

23、 absent from,不在、缺席；be absent in 不在里面；be absent without excuse 擅自缺席；in an absent sort of way心不在焉的；in an absent way茫然的；需要注意的是：absent in “說在.里面沒有某物時,不在這里，而在。The word is absent in the index at the end of the book.； He is absent in Beijing. absent from,“缺席，不在”He was absent from his work. He is absent fro

24、m Beijing.詞匯：一類是常用的但必須掌握（3會：讀、寫、用）。另外一類是只要掌握讀與義。例如：homogenous adj. 均質(zhì)的。It is up to somebody to do something. It took somebody sometime to do something. Not to mention something句型：常用的一些表述方式考試內(nèi)容：專業(yè)詞匯；句子和段落翻譯；簡單寫作Part Four Test and Grade (考評 )考試成績=平時成績*0.2+考試成績*0.8繼續(xù)Part five reference books (參考書 )繼續(xù)問題

25、引入閱讀理解Part one TextUnit one Civil Engineering一、詞匯predominatevi. 統(tǒng)治， 成為主流， 支配，占優(yōu)勢Vt. 掌握，控制，支配Pre+domin+ate; 先于+統(tǒng)治+動詞化用法提示Good predominates over evil in many works of literatureChinese-speaking people predominate in China.The beautiful girl can predominate her lover by force of her appearanceGeotechni

26、cal geo+technical; 地球+技術(shù)+的Adj. 巖土工程superviseSuper+vid 上面+看Vt. 監(jiān)督, 管理, 指導(dǎo)rampvi.狂跳亂撞, 敲詐, 蔓延n. 斜坡, 坡道, 敲詐vt.使有斜面, 敲詐excavatevt.挖掘, 開鑿, 挖出, 挖空ex+cav+ate; 出自+空+動詞化用法提示The workmen excavated a hole in the wall to let the sewage pipe pass through.aerial aeri+al; 空氣+的Adj.航空的, 生活在空氣中的, 空氣的, 高聳的excavated sur

27、faceexcavating machineaerial attackaerial bombaerial craft二、注解（Note）1、The civil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment.土木工程是對建設(shè)環(huán)境的規(guī)劃、設(shè)計、施工和管理定義表達方式The beam is the bar that is subjected to force acting tra

28、nsverse to its axis.3、In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time.2、Civil engineer build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage system, hospital, scho

29、ols, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentration. 土木工程師建設(shè)道路、橋梁、隧道、堤壩、港口、發(fā)電廠、上下水系統(tǒng)、醫(yī)院、學(xué)校、公共交通，以及現(xiàn)代社會和龐大的人中集中所必須的公共設(shè)施。essential to形容詞作后置定語，翻譯時提前。Food is essential to life.the essentials of grammarIt is essential for us to try to decide wheth

30、er television is a blessing or a curse.后置定語of the military engineers who predominated at the time4、Environment specialists study the projects impact on the local area: the potential for air and groundwater pollution, the projects impact on local animal and plant life, and how the project can be desi

31、gned to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment.環(huán)境專家研究工程項目對當(dāng)?shù)氐挠绊?，即潛在的空氣和地下水污染，工程項目對?dāng)?shù)貏游锖椭参锏挠绊?，以及如何設(shè)計工程項目使其滿足政府保護環(huán)境的要求。And 雙賓語。5、Based on information supplied by the other specialist, construction management civil engineers estimate quantities and cost of materials and labor,

32、 schedule all work, order materials and equipment for the job, hire contractors and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified.to ensure :不定式作目的狀語As+過去分詞作狀語基于其它專家提供的信息，施工管理土木工程師估算材料的勞動力的數(shù)量志成本，安排整個計劃，訂購施工工作所需要的材料和設(shè)備，雇傭承包商和分包商，并進行其它監(jiān)管

33、工作以確保工程項目按期按規(guī)定完成6、They evaluate and work to minimize the potential settlement of buildings and other structures that stems from the pressure of their weightto minimize不定式作目的狀語That從句修飾限定settlement7、The engineers determine pipeline design, the economic and environmental impact of a project on region i

34、t must traverse, the type of materials to be usedsteel, concrete, plastic, or combinations of various materials installation techniques, methods for testing pipeline strength, and controls for maintaining proper pressure and rate of materials being transported.簡單句工程師們要確定管道設(shè)計、工程項目對其必經(jīng)專區(qū)的經(jīng)濟與環(huán)境的沖突、所用材料

35、的類型(鋼材、混凝土、塑料、或各種組合材料)、安裝技術(shù)、測試管道壓力的方法、以及對所運輸材料適當(dāng)壓力與流速的保持。8、They coordinate the activities of virtually everyone engaged in the work: the surveyors; the workers who layout and construct the temporary roads and ramps, excavate for the foundation, build the forms and pour concrete; and workers who buil

36、d the steel framework.事實上，他們協(xié)調(diào)工程中每個施工人的活動，這些施工人員包括：測量員、布置與建造臨時道路與斜坡、挖掘地基、搭建模板與澆灌混凝土的工人、建造鋼框架的工人。9、Radio signs from satellite, scans by laser and sonic beams, are converted to maps to provide far more accurate measurements for boring tunnels, building highways and dams, plotting flood control and irr

37、igation projects, locating subsurface geologic formations that may affect a construction project, and a host of other building uses.人造衛(wèi)星通過激光束和聲速得到無線電信號能轉(zhuǎn)換為圖像，以便為開鑿隧道及建造公路、與堤壩、為規(guī)劃洪水控制和灌溉工程、為確定影響施工計劃的地下地質(zhì)構(gòu)造，以及為其它許多建設(shè)需要提供很精確的測量結(jié)果Scan : undergo electronic scanning.to provide：從句的省略For+動名詞作目的狀語That定語從句修飾f

38、ormations閱讀習(xí)慣 認識自己的閱讀習(xí)慣 改善閱讀習(xí)慣的方法 建議應(yīng)用的閱讀策略 1、怎么認識自己的閱讀習(xí)慣閱讀前What am I reading? Why am I reading it? How should I read? 閱讀時 先瀏覽后閱讀 閱讀意識 閱讀筆記 有一個明確的閱讀目標(biāo)和為其服務(wù)的閱讀策略 對學(xué)習(xí)管理能力在閱讀上的一種體現(xiàn) Part Two Reading SkillDo I read the title? Do I read any sub-headings? Do I read the first sentence of each paragraph (whi

39、ch should introduce the topic or idea)? Do I look at any diagrams, graphs or charts? Do I read any summaries or conclusions?瀏覽閱讀意識 讀什么，是否帶著問題在讀，劃出或摘記出要點，或者對作者的觀點提出質(zhì)疑 Do I think about what Im reading? Do I question what Im reading? Do I look for answers to my questions? Do I keep trying to anticipate

40、 what is coming next, or what the conclusions will be? Do I make notes of the important points, and ideas brought out by what I read? Do I challenge the assumptions of the writer, the logic of the arguments, and the validity of the conclusions? Do I take in what I read? 閱讀筆記 為了幫助理解而做的描述我們思考和理解過程的符號。

41、它可以是一句話，幾個字，一些符號甚至是一些各種不同顏色的劃線。閱讀筆記既幫助我們思考，又記錄了我們在閱讀時思考的痕跡，為第二次閱讀或日后復(fù)習(xí)時，能夠迅速進入狀態(tài)打下了基礎(chǔ) Do I underline and use a marker pen to highlight important words or phrases? Do I jot ideas and thoughts in the margins? Do I make notes about the points I highlighted to help myself remember them? Do I map out ide

42、as so that I can see how everything fits together? Do I give star ratings to valuable sentences, paragraphs or pages to make them easier to find later? 2、 改善閱讀習(xí)慣的方法 對所讀的內(nèi)容要有所了解 確定閱讀的目的 要學(xué)會監(jiān)測自己的閱讀理解效果 文章中的難點可以反復(fù)閱讀 突出重點的詞語 在書上做筆記的技巧 3、 應(yīng)啟用的閱讀策略 （1） 閱讀前的搜索 標(biāo)題，目錄、寫作的風(fēng)格、書后的介紹 （2）略讀了解大意 略讀是閱讀策略中的重要一環(huán)。通過略讀

43、我們能了解文章中信息的分布情況，為下一步回答問題而查找具體信息打下基礎(chǔ) （3）做必要的提問激勵積極的閱讀。常用以下問題 閱讀前 What am I reading? (確定文章的體裁)Why am I reading? (確定文章的目的)How should I read? (確定閱讀的技巧)What do I know about this topic? （確定有哪自己所知的背景知識可在讀中利用） 閱讀中 What does this mean? （確定讀懂了某一部分課文）What is the writers purpose? (作者的意圖是什么？描述一個過程，報告一件事情，討論一個問題，

44、或提出一個建議？Could I explain to someone else what I have read? What is the author trying to tell us? （確定我們能概述課文大意）Which part should I read fast/carefully? (確定我們在閱讀中保持清醒，知道我們在為尋找什么而使用哪些技巧)閱讀后 What are the main point(s) of the paragraph(s)? （確定對文章的理解把握）四、快速閱讀的能力 理解是關(guān)鍵 速度對于我們來說也是致關(guān)重要 檢查一下我們的閱讀速度 改善我們的閱讀 多讀一

45、些有一定難度的文章 訓(xùn)練眼睛的快速移動 積極主動地讀、有選擇地讀 按照意群去選擇閱讀的間隔和停頓 知識難度應(yīng)循序漸進 眼睛的移動應(yīng)一直保持向前 1）查找具體信息 ？2）合理變化閱讀速度？ 3）回顧、判斷、思考？ Skimming Scanning 根據(jù)實際需要，選擇合適的策略來閱讀，并在實踐中不斷提高我們對閱讀策略的理解和運用策略的水平 ?？偨Y(jié)Part Three Translating Skill、翻譯基礎(chǔ)1、概述2、翻譯的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)忠實和通順3、翻譯要注意科技英語的特點4、翻譯的步驟定義、本質(zhì)和分類要解決的根本問題有效途徑通讀全文，了解大意辯明語法關(guān)系，搞清句與句之間的邏輯關(guān)系；根據(jù)原文涉及的主

46、題或事物，確定某些多義詞的詞義。選擇合適的翻譯技巧，按漢語習(xí)慣遣詞造句，重述原文內(nèi)容；通讀譯文，修改與定稿。英語漢語科學(xué)、正確 邏輯、嚴密注重事實、概念明確 邏輯清晰、內(nèi)容正確、數(shù)據(jù)精準(zhǔn)、文字簡明、術(shù)語規(guī)范二、詞語的正確理解與表達詞義選擇和詞義引申 保證譯文質(zhì)量的前提和基礎(chǔ) (一)、詞義選擇Dr. Koope has called for a smoke-free America by the year 2000.詞義選擇忌望文生義，是一項自始至終的思維過程。一般從三個方面入手：詞類；專業(yè)內(nèi)容；習(xí)慣搭配和上下文 1、根據(jù)詞類選擇英語中很多詞匯在作為不同的詞類時有不同的意義，因此正確判斷一個詞在

47、句子中是以哪一種詞類出現(xiàn)，對辨別詞義有很大幫助 ，如：Glass is still the commonest material used to admit light.(名詞)Roof lighting can be through transparent sheets in an ordinary sheeted sloping roof, or through a saw tooth roof. （動名詞）Lightweight blocks are particularly suitable for resident construction, where structural loa

48、ds are usually quite light. (形容詞)The beacon lighted the plane to a safe landing. .(動詞)2、根據(jù)專業(yè)內(nèi)容選擇，各專業(yè)相互滲透、相互影響，詞義也相互變通和交叉使用的尤其是一些半專業(yè)(semi special)名詞。從事科技英漢翻譯時，要考慮詞匯所屬學(xué)科和專業(yè)，以便正確理解和選擇詞義。 3、根據(jù)搭配習(xí)慣選擇詞義是非常重要的手段之一。常見的搭配有：定語的中心詞、動詞和介詞副詞、動詞有不同的賓語。 Foundation:基礎(chǔ)、基金、創(chuàng)立load:荷載、裝入、輸入deep本身的詞義：深的；低沉的；酣睡的；鮮艷的；專心的；

49、難理解的；博學(xué)的；狡猾的；劇烈的等等 a deep well, a deep voice, a deep red, deep in study, a deep mystery, a deep thinker, deep outrage. 4、在選擇詞義時，只靠搭配來確定一個詞的詞義是往往不夠的。這里必須根據(jù)上下文正確判斷詞義 A bar that is subjected to forces acting a very transverse to its axis is called a beam.A laser is an apparatus for producing a very pow

50、erful narrow beam of light.(二)、詞義引申上下文和邏輯關(guān)系，從詞的基本含義進行引申，選擇出恰當(dāng)漢語詞匯1、具體化概括、籠統(tǒng)、抽象 具體 Rubber is soft, it gives way to pressure The transistor will do most of the things a triode tube will do.2、抽象化In order to survive, to feed, clothe, and shelter himself and his children, man has to learn how to use the

51、things he finds in nature.Engineering is a profession, which means that an engineer must have a specialized university education.Another means used to prevent the flow of water through a barrier wall is to parge the backside of the outside wall. Many problems of importance in engineering cannot be h

52、andled efficiently by means of theory alone.練習(xí)For the purpose of this article, however, drywall construction will mean a wall constructed of gypsum. Round form is not a necessary shape for using concrete underground, but it is a shape that is easily constructed by the amateur or self-builder. It may

53、 be constructed of wood. There wheels are constructed smaller. The railway was being constructed at that period. Constructed a good objective test requires a great deal of time and thought.Part Three Writing SkillThe apparent loss of weight of a substance which is immersed in a liquid equal the weig

54、ht of the displaced liquid.謂語動詞簡單，其它成份復(fù)雜口語，名詞簡單但動詞復(fù)雜I dont want to go and buy textbook today.寫作注意事項三、文體要求ABCA準(zhǔn)確1 正確的運用語法和句型例如當(dāng)定義時要注意語氣，時態(tài)和語態(tài)A planet, as the name suggest, could be nothing but something like Mars.According to some saying, a planet may be a heavenly sphere, such as Mars.A planet is a

55、heavenly sphere such as earth.時態(tài)和一致性:普遍真理。Water freezes at 0 .陳述和觀察事實。This type concrete contains about 30 percent sand .描述實驗。The filter paper then collects the impurities.一般現(xiàn)在時一、寫作對象二、寫作目的程度避免偏離主題和文字冗余I am writing this for my unit managers monthly digest of the work weve been doing because I want t

56、o stress my results and show how they fit into overall project projection for the project.1、water has a boiling point of 100. 2、the boiling point of water is 1003、In chemistry each element has its own symbol, which is usually a capital letter followed by a small letter.科學(xué)論述中的Be 和have正確運用句型People com

57、monly say that clinical thermometers are used to find out the body temperature.語氣:陳述語氣（對事實一般性的敘述）語態(tài):被動語態(tài)和主動語態(tài)。根據(jù)表達的意思所定。例如對某一問題進行討論時，應(yīng)使用主動語態(tài)：用較少的詞匯，且好理解It is maintained by the contractor The contractor maintains thatIt is commonly believed that clinical thermometers are used to determine the body te

58、mperature.不使用意義模棱兩可的詞匯。在下定義、描述過程、作結(jié)論；不使用主觀色彩的詞匯。例如與摘要時，不要加入個人的觀點、也不要使用問句和感嘆句最好用第三人稱。B簡潔：內(nèi)容和句型C清晰：思維的邏輯性和表達的連貫性1、誤置修飾語的錯誤The engineering student made a big mess wearing the red hat.1）修飾語應(yīng)靠近所修飾的詞2）當(dāng)almost, even, hardly, just, merely, only, nearly, scarcely等詞在句中時，一定要放在中心詞的靠近處，否則會發(fā)生邏輯錯誤.We solved three

59、question only. We solved only three question.3）修飾性從句同中心詞保持明顯的關(guān)系She borrowed a car from his friend that was bad.From his friend, she borrowed a car that was bad.4)避免不一致的修飾語The Moto 1100 is a small family car. It has a small engine which is in the front. The engine has a capacity of 1,100 cubic centim

60、eters. It is a front wheel drive car. The gear lever is on the floor. There are seats for four or five people. It has four forward gears and a reverse. It has a maximum speed of about 130 km an hour. One advantage of this car is that has a very low fuel consumption.看下面短文，注意Be 和have的作簡潔性的描述His doctor