電大外國文學(xué)試題及答案參考資料

1、電大外國文學(xué)試題及答案參考資料小抄一、單項選擇題1在希臘神話中，愛神與戰(zhàn)神私通，被愛神的丈夫用一張大網(wǎng)捉住，眾神哄堂大笑。在古希臘人看來，這些都是A理性不能克制情欲的表現(xiàn)B缺乏道德意識的表現(xiàn)C婚姻狀態(tài)尚不穩(wěn)定的表現(xiàn)D神和人一樣有七情六欲的表現(xiàn) D2在埃涅阿斯紀中，維吉爾把羅馬人的祖先、特洛伊王子埃涅阿斯寫成是神的后裔，其最主要目的是A為了忠實于史實B為了忠實于神話傳說C為了渲染史詩的浪漫氣氛D為屋大維的統(tǒng)治尋找依據(jù)，歌頌羅馬統(tǒng)治者 D 3羅蘭之歌通過對羅蘭奮勇拼殺、戰(zhàn)死疆場的描寫所要表達的主題是A悲觀主義 B愛國主義C自由主義 D人文主義 B 4列那狐同比自己強大的獅子、狼和熊進行周旋和斗爭，

2、目的是A保護比自己弱小的雞、麻雀和小兔等B代表弱小的雞、麻雀和小兔同強權(quán)進行斗爭C展現(xiàn)其叛逆性格D純粹是為了自身的利益，但客觀上也有利于小動物 D 5但丁創(chuàng)作神曲時使用的語言是A拉丁語 B希臘語C意大利語 D希伯來語 C 6文藝復(fù)興時期的名著十日談的核心思想是A反對個人主義B宣揚“幸福在人間”C倡導(dǎo)英雄主義D宣揚封建迷信 B 7莎士比亞早期創(chuàng)作的羅密歐與朱麗葉是A一出陰沉的喜劇B一出樂觀的喜劇C一出樂觀的悲劇D一出陰沉的悲劇 C 8拉辛的悲劇安德洛瑪刻中的同名女主人公由于理性和感情的高度統(tǒng)一，結(jié)果是A喪失了兒子的生命，保住了自己的貞節(jié)B喪失了兒子的生命，喪失了自己的貞節(jié)C保全了兒子的生命，保住

3、了自己的貞節(jié)D保全了兒子的生命，喪失了自己的貞節(jié) C 9，笛福的魯濱遜飄流記的主人公是A西班牙流浪漢典型B具有才能卻自甘墮落的時代畸形兒典型C資本原始積累時期英國商業(yè)資產(chǎn)者的典型D堂吉訶德式的典型 C10恩格斯稱狄德羅的哲理小說拉摩的侄兒是A“辯證法的杰作”B“無與倫比的作品”C“心靈的辯證法”的杰作D“唯物辯證法”的作品 A 11雨果的九三年中革命軍司令郭文私自放走了叛軍首領(lǐng)朗德納克，其原因是A朗德納克是他的叔祖父B朗德納克因救小孩而被捕，共和國不應(yīng)該處他死刑C政委西穆爾登是他的老師，不會追究他的責任D同情叛軍，對共和國不滿 B12霍桑的紅字看似一部描寫愛情的小說，實際上表現(xiàn)的是A美國的南北

4、戰(zhàn)爭 B印地安人同白人的斗爭C宗教對人性的摧殘 D金錢對人性的毀滅 C 13斯丹達爾的文藝論著拉辛與莎土比亞被認為是A浪漫主義的宣言書 B批判現(xiàn)實主義文學(xué)的第一部理論著作C古典主義的文藝法典 D啟蒙主義理論著作 B14托爾斯泰的長篇小說復(fù)活中的女主人公瑪絲洛娃是A.上流社會婦女B被侮辱與被損害的下層婦女C追求個性解放的貴族婦女D無可救藥的下賤女人 B 15.陀思妥耶夫斯基在窮人中塑造的馬卡爾杰武什金是A被侮辱與被損害的小人物 B正面的優(yōu)秀人物C平民知識分子“新人”形象 D革命民主主義者 A 16.高爾基的被稱作是那一時代“俄羅斯精神生活的編年史”的小說是A克里姆薩姆金的一生B馬特維柯熱米亞金的

5、一生C阿爾達莫諾夫家的事業(yè)D奧古洛夫鎮(zhèn) 17靜靜的頓河所描寫的頓河地區(qū)那些走向新生活的人們是A烏克蘭人 B哈薩克人C哥薩克人 D烏茲別克人 1830年代初，羅曼羅蘭發(fā)表的用以進行自我批評和懺悔反省的著名論文是A超乎混戰(zhàn)之上 B欣悅的靈魂C向過去告別 D理智的勝利 19惡心(又譯厭惡或作嘔)是薩特的成名作，其體裁是A境遇劇 B日記體、自敘體小說C荒誕劇 D哲學(xué)隨筆 20戈丹是印度現(xiàn)代著名作家普列姆昌德的名作，主人公何利一生最大的愿望是A擁有一頭奶牛 B想要一個兒子C還清高利貸 D贖回被變相出賣的女兒 21宮間街、思宮街、甘露街三部曲是馬哈福茲的代表作。它主要描寫的是A一個封建貴族家庭幾代人的覺醒

6、反抗B一個中產(chǎn)階級家庭三代人對理想的追求C一個工人階級家庭三代人與資本家的斗爭D一個貧苦農(nóng)民家庭幾代人受剝削壓迫的血淚史 22中古波斯著名詩人薩迪在自己重要的作品薔薇園中，主要表現(xiàn)的是A神秘主義思想 B封建主義思想C悲觀主義思想 D人道主義思想 23夏目漱石代表作我是貓對當時的社會現(xiàn)實進行了廣泛的揭露和批判。其采用的最主要方法是A以古代文學(xué)的題材表達作者現(xiàn)代的思想B以沉重的筆調(diào)表現(xiàn)悲觀主義思想C以貓為敘述者，見人之所未見，言人之所不能言D以作家獨特的方言進行一語雙關(guān)式的敘述 24川端康成的著名小說雪國描寫了社會下層人物駒子的悲慘境遇。小說選取的主要角度是A從日常生活表現(xiàn)和對待命運態(tài)度兩方面進行

7、描繪B從政治生活表現(xiàn)和對待命運態(tài)度兩方面進行描繪C從日常生活表現(xiàn)和對待愛情態(tài)度兩方面進行描繪D從政治生活表現(xiàn)和對待愛情態(tài)度兩方面進行描繪 二、多項選擇題25在伊阿古看來，他之所以要陷害奧賽羅、苔絲德蒙娜和凱西奧，原因有A他認為奧賽羅不公正，本應(yīng)提拔他伊阿古當副官，但卻提拔了凱西奧當副官B他認為凱西奧在奧賽羅和苔絲德蒙娜的戀愛過程中幫過忙討好過他們C他認為他自己應(yīng)該得到苔絲德蒙娜D他認為凱西奧與苔絲德蒙娜確實有曖昧關(guān)系E他認為這些人既憨且直，最容易上當受騙 ABE 2617世紀歐洲文學(xué)的主要成就有英國資產(chǎn)階級革命文學(xué)和法國古典主義文學(xué)，此外還有A巴洛克文學(xué) B市民世俗文學(xué)C耶拿派詩歌 D海德堡浪

8、漫派E感傷主義文學(xué) AB27博馬舍的費加羅的婚姻描寫的主要內(nèi)容有A阿勒瑪維華伯爵和伯爵夫人的婚姻B伯爵仆人費加羅和伯爵夫人使女蘇珊娜的婚姻C伯爵施展手段追求蘇珊娜，企圖恢復(fù)對農(nóng)奴新娘的“初夜權(quán)”D費加羅對伯爵百依百順，委屈求全E費加羅憑智慧和機巧挫敗了伯爵的罪惡企圖 BCE28普希金的政治抒情詩有A自由頌 B鄉(xiāng)村C致大海 D致西伯利亞E皇村的回憶 ABCD 29老人與海中具有象征意義的物象有A鯨魚 B大海C馬林魚 D鯊魚E獅子 BCDE 30卡夫卡所創(chuàng)造的藝術(shù)世界，人們稱為“卡夫卡式”。這種“卡夫卡式”小說的藝術(shù)特色具體表現(xiàn)有A荒誕框架下的細節(jié)真實 B一定的自傳色彩C結(jié)構(gòu)完整 D怪誕E象征 3

9、1加西亞馬爾克斯的百年孤獨是魔幻現(xiàn)實主義的經(jīng)典作品，其描寫的主要內(nèi)容有A對拉美民族歷史文化的再現(xiàn)B布恩蒂亞家族7代人充滿神奇色彩的生活和經(jīng)歷C哥倫比亞反動獨裁政權(quán)的殘暴D美國侵略者對拉美民族的政治壓迫和經(jīng)濟掠奪E拉美人民應(yīng)該告別愚昧、孤獨，走向覺醒與文明 32沙恭達羅描寫豆扇陀向沙恭達羅表達愛情的情節(jié)主要有A借故要留在凈修林B與沙恭達羅以干闥婆方式結(jié)合C恢復(fù)記憶后開始思念和尋找沙恭達羅D在回京前以戒指為信物相贈E在仙界相認時悔恨交加 第二部分 非選擇題三、名詞解釋33.狂飆突進運動34.荒誕派戲劇35.俳句四、簡答題36.簡要說明偽君子中答爾丟夫這一宗教偽善者的欺騙性與危害性.37.哈代筆下的

10、苔絲是“一個純潔的女人”，但卻遭到毀滅，試析苔絲悲劇的根源。38.簡析黑色幽默代表作家海勒第二十二條軍規(guī)中“第二十二條軍規(guī)”的深刻內(nèi)涵。五、論述題39.堂吉訶德是個可笑、可愛、可敬又可悲的藝術(shù)典型，試論這一形象的矛盾性。40.戈拉是泰戈爾歌頌印度青年的愛國精神、批判宗教偏見的著名作品，試論作者在塑造成主人公戈拉時所運用的主要藝術(shù)手法。六、分析題41.歐洲文學(xué)史上有一系列吝嗇鬼形象,試比較老葛朗臺和潑留希金這兩個吝嗇鬼形象的異同.外國文學(xué)史試題參考答案課程代碼：00540一、單項選擇題1 D 2 D 3 B 4 D 5 C6 B 7 C 8 C 9 C 10 A11 B 12 C 13 B 14

11、 B 15. A16A 17C 18C 19B 20A21B 22D 23C 24C二、多項選擇題25.A B E 26A B 27B C E 28A B C D29 B C D E 30 A B D E 31 A B C D E 32 A B C D E三、名詞解釋參考答案33(1)18世紀70至80年代，在德國發(fā)生的一場文學(xué)運動。(2)要求個性解放，崇尚天才和叛逆，推崇自然和自我。(3)代表作家有席勒和歌德。34(1)荒誕派戲劇是20世紀50年代興起于法國，60年代后流行于歐美其他國家的一個反傳統(tǒng)戲劇流派。(2)它沒有完整連貫的情節(jié)，沒有戲劇沖突，舞臺形象支離破碎，人物語言顛三倒四,它表現(xiàn)

12、的世界是荒誕的，人生是痛苦的，人與人的關(guān)系是無法溝通的。(3)代表作家有尤奈斯庫、貝克特、品特和阿爾比等。35(1)是日本民族創(chuàng)造的一種形式最短小的詩歌形體。(2)由“五、七、五”句式共17個音組成，含蓄、凝煉，追求一種淡雅、靜寂和雋秀的意境。(3)代表作家是被尊為“俳圣”的松尾芭蕉。四、簡答題36(1)答爾丟夫是17世紀宗教偽善者的化身，表里不一，將自己裝扮成虔誠的教士。實際上卻是貪食貪睡貪財貪色的惡棍。(2)惡行敗露時，立刻露出猙獰面目，利用法律，串通官府，企圖置他人于死地。(3)他的行為向世人昭示了這種偽善者與法律、宗教、官府、宮廷聯(lián)系密切，是偽善社會的產(chǎn)物，具有極大的欺騙性和危害性。3

13、7(1)個人的悲劇：對美好生活的追求使苔絲始終不向環(huán)境和命運低頭，但她又相信人的一生是由命運安排的。(2)時代的悲?。嘿Y本主義大工業(yè)侵入宗法制鄉(xiāng)村，宗法制農(nóng)民紛紛破產(chǎn)，道德秩序與生活秩序一樣產(chǎn)生了混亂。苔絲內(nèi)心的純潔與所處環(huán)境的沖突形成了悲劇的因素,不合理的社會制度毀滅了苔絲。38(1)“軍規(guī)”本身就是一種高度抽象和集中，象征著冥冥中統(tǒng)治世界的神秘力量，變化無常，莫測高深；(2)作為一條軍規(guī),它是強制性的；它運用了自相矛盾的推理邏輯，在似是而非中包藏著禍心；(3)它的本質(zhì)在于它是一個放之四海而皆準的圈套，是一種永遠無法擺脫的困境，是現(xiàn)代西方人對世界的一種感受。五、論述題參考答案39堂吉訶德是個

14、滿腦子騎士幻想而又具有人文主義思想特征的可笑而又可敬的矛盾復(fù)雜形象。(1)他是個滿腦子騎士幻想的不切買際的幻想家的典型。理想與現(xiàn)實脫節(jié)，主觀與客觀分離是其主要特征。受流行的騎士小說的毒害，他迷上了騎士道，試圖恢復(fù)過時的騎士道。因而，雖然動機良好，但行為卻極其荒唐，效果也極壞。吃盡了苦頭。出夠了洋相。(2)同時，他還是一個具有人文主義特征的可敬的人物。他有淵博的學(xué)識，崇高的理想，有為真理和正義而獻身的精神。他打起仗來勇往直前，無所畏懼。且道德高尚，誠實守信。他心目中的騎士道實際上也是他的人文主義理想的載體和寄托。(3)當時的西班牙社會沒有提供實現(xiàn)其理想的土壤，因而造就了這個可笑而又可敬的矛盾形象

15、。(4)這個形象具有重要意義。通過他，既諷刺了不切實際的幻想家，也表達和寄托了人文主義理想，同時還表達了對當時西班牙社會的苦澀理解。40(1)人物對話富有論辯性。戈拉積極發(fā)表自己的見解與別人爭論，有助于揭示人物性格和內(nèi)心思想。(2)人物形象的鮮明對比。戈拉與畢諾耶，戈拉與哈倫的對比更深刻地刻畫出人物形象。(3)優(yōu)美的抒情格調(diào)。在描摹戈拉的言行時，伴隨著作者的強烈抒情。六、分析題參考答案41相同點：(1)葛朗臺的一切信仰都以金錢利害關(guān)系為基礎(chǔ)，他搞政治投機，正是為了經(jīng)濟掠奪。波留希金具有強烈的積聚財富的欲望，一天到晚為財物的積累和貯存而奔波。(2)貪婪使葛朗臺被金錢所奴役，最終在對黃金的渴欲中送

16、命。貪婪使波留希金變成了財富的奴隸，成為受物質(zhì)支配的異化了的人。(3)吝嗇使葛朗臺喪失人性，他對妻子、女兒、侄子毫無感情可言。吝嗇使波留希金失去了性別，他過著乞丐一般的生活，和兒女斷絕親情。不同點：葛朗臺是法國19世紀初期一個資產(chǎn)階級暴發(fā)戶，他的最大特征是巧取豪奪。他的發(fā)跡是靠侵占大革命的勝利果實與剝奪人民財富發(fā)家致富的，充滿了血腥與罪惡。波留希金是19世紀俄國農(nóng)奴制度崩潰時期的地主，他的最大的特征是沒落和墮落，他殘酷地壓榨和剝削農(nóng)奴，他的沒落表現(xiàn)了俄國農(nóng)奴主階級的衰亡。請您刪除一下內(nèi)容，O(_)O謝謝！2016年中央電大期末復(fù)習考試小抄大全，電大期末考試必備小抄，電大考試必過小抄Acetyl

17、choline is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. The enzyme necessary for

18、this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. When a nerve action potential

19、reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the effector cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signals are converted to chemical s

20、ignals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and non-nerve cells. This process is termed chemical neurotransmission and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is k

21、nown as cholinergic. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the so-called motor end plate. On release, acetylch

22、oline acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a command is required. The action of

23、acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds; an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. The choline is then available for re-uptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neu

24、romuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nerve-to-nerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on non-voluntary (smo

25、oth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells; in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nerve-to-nerve synapses.

26、To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. In post-synaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylchol

27、ine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the complex of receptor combined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types of acetylcholine receptors exis

28、t in the membranes of cells. The type in skeletal muscle is known as nicotinic; in glands, smooth muscle, and the heart they are muscarinic; and there are some of each type in the brain. These terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors, whereas muscarin

29、e, an alkaloid from the mushroom Amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. In the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as

30、 well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system acetylcholine is believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and becomes

31、 packaged into membrane-boundvesicles. After the arrival of a nerve signal at the termination of an axon, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, causing the release of acetylcholine into thesynaptic cleft. For the nerve signal to continue, acetylcholine must diffuse to another nearby neuron or mu

32、scle cell, where it will bind and activate areceptorprotein. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic. Nicotinic receptors are located at synapses between two neurons and at synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. Upon activation a nicotinic receptor ac

33、ts as a channel for the movement of ions into and out of the neuron, directly resulting indepolarizationof the neuron. Muscarinic receptors, located at the synapses of nerves with smooth or cardiac muscle, trigger a chain of chemical events referred to as signal transduction. For a cholinergic neuro

34、n to receive another impulse, acetylcholine must be released from the receptor to which it has bound. This will only happen if the concentration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is very low. Low synaptic concentrations of acetylcholine can be maintained via a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by t

35、he enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. If acetylcholinesterase activity is inhibited, the synaptic concentration of acetylcholine will remain higher than normal. If this inhibition is irreversible, as in the case of exposure to many nerve g

36、ases and some pesticides, sweating, bronchial constriction, convulsions, paralysis, and possibly death can occur. Although irreversible inhibition is dangerous, beneficial effects may be derived from transient (reversible) inhibition. Drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase in a reversible manner ha

37、ve been shown to improve memory in some people with Alzheimers disease. abstract expressionism, movement of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York scho

38、ol. It was the first important school in American painting to declare its independence from European styles and to influence the development of art abroad. Arshile Gorky first gave impetus to the movement. His paintings, derived at first from the art of Picasso, Mir, and surrealism, became more pers

39、onally expressive. Jackson Pollocks turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which were created by spattering paint on huge canvases placed on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. Willem de Koonings first one-man show in 1948 established him as a highly influential art

40、ist. His intensely complicated abstract paintings of the 1940s were followed by images of Woman, grotesque versions of buxom womanhood, which were virtually unparalleled in the sustained savagery of their execution. Painters such as Philip Guston and Franz Kline turned to the abstract late in the 19

41、40s and soon developed strikingly original stylesthe former, lyrical and evocative, the latter, forceful and boldly dramatic. Other important artists involved with the movement included Hans Hofmann, Robert Motherwell, and Mark Rothko; among other major abstract expressionists were such painters as

42、Clyfford Still, Theodoros Stamos, Adolph Gottlieb, Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner, and Esteban Vicente. Abstract expressionism presented a broad range of stylistic diversity within its largely, though not exclusively, nonrepresentational framework. For example, the expressive violence and activity

43、 in paintings by de Kooning or Pollock marked the opposite end of the pole from the simple, quiescent images of Mark Rothko. Basic to most abstract expressionist painting were the attention paid to surface qualities, i.e., qualities of brushstroke and texture; the use of huge canvases; the adoption

44、of an approach to space in which all parts of the canvas played an equally vital role in the total work; the harnessing of accidents that occurred during the process of painting; the glorification of the act of painting itself as a means of visual communication; and the attempt to transfer pure emot

45、ion directly onto the canvas. The movement had an inestimable influence on the many varieties of work that followed it, especially in the way its proponents used color and materials. Its essential energy transmitted an enduring excitement to the American art scene. Science and technology is quite a

46、broad category, and it covers everything from studying the stars and the planets to studying molecules and viruses. Beginning with the Greeks and Hipparchus, continuing through Ptolemy, Copernicus and Galileo, and today with our work on the International Space Station, man continues to learn more an

47、d more about the heavens. From here, we look inward to biochemistry and biology. To truly understand biochemistry, scientists study and see the unseen bystudying the chemistry of biological processes. This science, along with biophysics, aims to bring a better understanding of how bodies work from h

48、ow we turn food into energy to how nerve impulses transmit.analytic geometry, branch ofgeometryin which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such asCartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. Its most common application is in

49、the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. For example, the linear equationax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in thexy-plane, and the linear equationax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane in space, wherea, b, c,an

50、ddare constant numbers (coefficients). In this way a geometric problem can be translated into an algebraic problem and the methods of algebra brought to bear on its solution. Conversely, the solution of a problem in algebra, such as finding the roots of an equation or system of equations, can be est

51、imated or sometimes given exactly by geometric means, e.g., plotting curves and surfaces and determining points of intersection. In plane analytic geometry a line is frequently described in terms of its slope, which expresses its inclination to the coordinate axes; technically, the slopemof a straig

52、ht line is the (trigonometric) tangent of the angle it makes with thex-axis. If the line is parallel to thex-axis, its slope is zero. Two or more lines with equal slopes are parallel to one another. In general, the slope of the line through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given bym= (y2-y1) / (x2-

53、x1). The conic sections are treated in analytic geometry as the curves corresponding to the general quadratic equationax2+bxy+cy2+dx+ey+f=0, wherea, b, fare constants anda, b,andcare not all zero. In solid analytic geometry the orientation of a straight line is given not by one slope but by its dire

54、ction cosines, , , and , the cosines of the angles the line makes with thex-, y-,andz-axes, respectively; these satisfy the relationship 2+2+2= 1. In the same way that the conic sections are studied in two dimensions, the 17 quadric surfaces, e.g., the ellipsoid, paraboloid, and elliptic paraboloid,

55、 are studied in solid analytic geometry in terms of the general equationax2+by2+cz2+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=0. The methods of analytic geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. Analytic geometry was introduced by RenDescartesin 1

56、637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of thecalculusby Sir Isaac Newton and G. W. Leibniz in the late 17th cent. More recently it has served as the basis for the modern development and exploitation ofalgebraic geometry. circle, closed plane curve consisting of all points at a given distance from some fixed