up1段落寫作主題句展開結(jié)尾

1、英語寫作段落分析段落是文章的 。寫好了段落，就能比較成功地寫出較好的文章。經(jīng)過中 基礎(chǔ)階段的學(xué)習(xí)之后，大 的寫作重點就從選詞造句轉(zhuǎn)移到了聯(lián)句 和聯(lián)段成篇上。進行段落層次上的寫作訓(xùn)練，是寫好英語文章的關(guān)鍵一環(huán)。下面介紹的是段落結(jié)構(gòu)。段落（ paragraph ）是由表達單一中心（controlling idea or central idea ）的一組句子（包括句 topic sentence,推展句 supporting senten及結(jié)論句 concluding sentence），是文章結(jié)構(gòu)的基本獨立。本講就句和中心思想這兩個方面展開。句與推展句1句句（topic sentence）是表達

2、段落的句子。它用以概括段落大意，要求全段其他文字都圍繞它展開。請看下例：My mother has passed along to me certain rules fetting along with others.t argue with parents; they will think yout love them.t argue with children; they will think themselves victimized.t argue with spouses; they will think you are a tiresome mate.t argue with st

3、rangers; they will think you are not friendly. My mothers rules, in fact, can be summed upwo words:t argue.句中certain rules 指的是什么？展開句中通過四個 t argue -逐一加以交代。從結(jié)構(gòu)來看，這是一個比較典型的段落，它包括了句，推展句和結(jié)論句（即本段中的末句）。11句的位置句通常放在段落的開端，其特點是開門見山地擺出問題，然后加以詳細說明。其作用是使文章的結(jié)構(gòu)更清晰，更具說服力，便于讀者迅速地把握和想象全段的內(nèi)容。句可以放在段中起到承上啟下的作用，或放在概括全段的作用

4、。但初學(xué)者比較難于掌握，因而在四級中，考生應(yīng)盡量采用將句放在段落開頭的寫作手法。例 1: Our life today depends very much on energy.owns and in villages, on farms and in factories, machines have made life easiern it used to be. The machines use energy, and energy is needed for heating, lighting, communications, carrying goods - everything. Fa

5、ctories and industrial plants use a great deal of energy to make the thingst we use and buy and sell.這段文字所講的主要是能源問題。第一句就概括性地提出“ 目前的生活很大程度上依賴于能源”。而隨后出現(xiàn)的三句都是具體事例，對第一句進行說明和論述。 可以斷定第一句為該段的 句（斜體部分）。例 2: （ 句）No one can avoid being influenced by advertisements. （推展句 1）Much as we may pride ourselves on our

6、good taste, we are no longer free to choose the things we want, for advertising exerts a subtle influence on us. （推展句 2） heir efforts to persuade us to buy this or t product, advertisers have made a close study of human nature and have classified all our little weakness.以上這段由三句話組成。第一句是句，直截了當無人不受影響這個

7、，接著列舉兩個推展句對其補充和支持，已無法所需的商品，理由是商已仔細了的心理，并完全掌握了的弱點。句子銜接自然，步步緊扣。12 如何寫好句中的段落的 句對 的限定主要是通過句中的 來表現(xiàn)的 要盡量寫得具體些。對“具體”的要求包括兩個方面：一是要具體到能控制和限制段落的發(fā)展；二是要具體到能說明段落發(fā)展的方法。準確地把握 是清楚地表達段落 、寫好段落 句的重要前提之一。在上面的例 1，例 2 中 句的 分別為：depends very much on energy; no one can avoid being influenced. 再看下列例句：原句 1: He can fix a bicyc

8、le himself.斜體部分應(yīng)為句中的。但它只是限制了段落發(fā)展的部分內(nèi)容，并沒有告訴讀對于初學(xué)寫作的人來說，“導(dǎo)向”的重要性容易理解，但如果由他們自己來構(gòu)思一個就可能忽視“制約”這一面。例如：句，There are two ways in which one can own a book. Theis the propertyright you establish by paying for it, just as you have made it a part of yourself and the best way to make yourself a part of it is by

9、writing in it.本段的句如果沒有 in which 引出的定語從句，那么 two ways 不僅不能起制約作用，而且也不能起導(dǎo)向作用，句子本身讀起來也就使人覺得欠缺點什么。Exercise is benefil to your heart. A 22-year study was conducted by doctorsin California. They foundt people who work at physical jobs experience fewereople. These active people work all the time at moderateh

10、eartacksn othspeeds, their daily routine gives them an adequate amount of exercise and helpsthem stay in sh.Exercise is benefil這是毫無疑義的。但句中如不加上to your heart來加以 control 和 limit，那就流于空泛。因此，緊緊把握句中 controlling idea 的導(dǎo)向和制約作用，是短文寫作成功關(guān)鍵之一。推展句 主要推展句主要推展句(major supporting sement)的主要特點是：圍繞段落句展開的每一個推展句本身都不要求作進一步

11、的說明或證明，句與句之間的關(guān)系是相互獨立又是互相連接的。例 1：(句) There are several factors affecting climate. (推展句 1)One factor isthe mount of sunlight received. (推展句 2)Altitude, or the height above sea level,者該用哪種方法展開，是用因果關(guān)系法還是用分類法？修正：He can fix a bicycle himself in several simple steps.修正：There are several reasons why he can

12、fix a bicycle himself.原句 2: She tries to improve her looks.斜體部分應(yīng)為句中的。她試著改變她面容的理由是什么？或者她采取什么方法來改善呢？無法從中清楚得知。修正：She tries many ways to improve her looks.修正：There are some reasons why she tries to improve her looks。1.3 如何寫好句的中心句由兩部分組成，即 (topic)和中心 （controlling idea）。中心 的作用是導(dǎo)向(control)和制約(limit)。 前面談到的

13、就反映了中心 。所謂導(dǎo)向就是規(guī)定段落的發(fā)展脈絡(luò)，所謂制約就是限制 的覆蓋范圍，兩者不可分割。沒有導(dǎo)向，內(nèi)容就會離題或偏題；沒有制約，內(nèi)容就可能超出一個段落所能容納的范圍。also determines climate. (推展句 3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land. ( 推展句 4)In addition, climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.句影響氣候的幾個。然后用四個擴展句說明四種。第一種是光的接收量，第二種是

14、海拔高度，第三句和第四句分別是海洋和大氣環(huán)流2.2 次要推展句。次要推展句(minor supporting sement)是指對主要推展句作進一步的事實分析和舉例說明。它從屬于某一個或某幾個推展句。例 2：(句)It teach because teaching is easy for me. (主要推展句Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living: mechanic, carpenter, writer. (主要推展句 2)For me, teaching is

15、a red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach profes . (次要推展句 1)Red-eye, because I never feel ready to teach no matter how late I stay up preparing. ( 次要推展句Sweaty-palm, because Im always nervous before I enter the classroom, suret I will be found out for the foolt I am. (次要推展句 3)Sinking-stomach,because I

16、leave the classroom an hour later convincedn usual.t I was even more boring從屬于主要推展句 2 的三個次要推展句起著解釋說明作用，分別解釋 red-eye,sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach 的含義，這就更加形象生動地證明了 teaching is noteasy 這個。23 主要推展句與次要推展句的關(guān)系主要推展句與次要推展句的關(guān)系(relation)基本可以遵循下面的“三部分”(three-part)規(guī)則。1每個主要推展句都應(yīng)該是對句中表示主要的的直接、明確的說明。2每個次要推展句都應(yīng)該說明它的

17、主要推展句。3含有說明或分析的問題通常既要有主要推展素材，又要有次要推展素材。24 寫好推展句的方法句及確定后，開始選擇和有關(guān)的信息和素材。實質(zhì)上，針對測試每一個所選擇的素材就是一個分類的過程。有一種常用的方法就是句子展開前加以設(shè)問，然后解答，即設(shè)問解答(why-because)的方法。下面通過舉例來看一看這種分類過程是如何完成的。例 3：假設(shè) (supe) Topic sentence: English is anernational language?設(shè)問(why) Why can we say English is an解答(because)ernational language?Bec

18、ause: English is spoken by pilots and airport control operators on all theairways of the world.Because: Over 70 percent of the worldsis written in English.Because: Moren 60 percent of the worlds radio programs are in English.Because: Pakistan was once one of the British colonies.Because: Many member

19、s of thefrom English-spoken countries.ernational Language Society are selectedanernational language 一致的。從上面可以看出，最初的三個推展句是和，盡管第四句會成為另一句(Many Pakistanis speak English)第四句和句不很好的推展句。第五句說服力不強。落時，沒有必要在每個句子開頭寫上 because，但是，在動筆展開當然，在寫句子時，頭腦里要想著這個詞，這種檢驗方法能幫助你把注意力集中在某個重心，圍繞層層展開。上面似，這里了主要推展句的一種展開方法。而展開次要推展句的方法與

20、主要推展句類就不再復(fù)述了。段落發(fā)展的幾種1 列舉法(details)作者運用列舉法，是通過列舉一系列的論據(jù)對 topic sentence 中擺出的論點進行廣泛、全面地陳述或解釋，列舉的順序可以按照所列各點內(nèi)容的相對重要性、時間、空間等進行。Yesterday was one of those awful days for me when everything I did wentwrong., I didnt hear my alarm clock and arrived late for work. Then, I didntread my diary properly and fot t

21、o get to an important meeting with mys.During the coffee break, I dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt.unchtime, I left my purse on a bus and lost all the moneyt was in it. Afterch, mys was angry because I hadnt gone to the meeting. Then I didnt notice a signon a doort said Wet Pa and so I

22、spoilt my jacket too. When I got home Icouldnt geto my flat because I had left my keyy office. So I broke awindow to get in and cut my hand.組 everything I did went wrong，作者列舉了 8 點內(nèi)容，根據(jù)本段句中的分別由, then, during the coffee break, afterch time 等連接詞語引出，使得該文條理清楚、脈絡(luò)分明、內(nèi)容連貫。常用于列舉法的過渡連接詞有：for one thing , for a

23、nother, finally, besides,moreover, one another , still another, second, also 等。2. 舉例法(example)作者通過舉出具體事例來闡述、說明句的內(nèi)容，嚴格地講，舉例法也是列舉法的一種，它們的區(qū)別在于：列舉法側(cè)重羅列事實，所列事實力求全面；而舉例法側(cè)重通過舉出典型事例來解釋作者觀點，且事例可多可少。來看下面這個用舉例法展開的段落。There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. Forexample, those who enj

24、oy competitive sports may take up ball games. For anotherexample, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walkhemorning orhe evening. Besides, people can go swimminghe summer andgo skatinghe wer. In short, no matter what theirerests are, people canalways find moren one sports

25、t are suitable to them.組 different forms of exercises，這三本段采用了三個事例來說明句中的個例子分別由連接詞 for example, for another example 和 besides 引出，最后由引導(dǎo)的結(jié)尾句總結(jié)全段內(nèi)容。舉例法中常用的連接詞有：for example (instance), one example is, besides,furthermore, moreover, in addition 等。3. 敘述法(narration)敘述法發(fā)展段落主要是按照事物本身的時間或空間的排列順序，通過對一些特有過渡連接詞的使用

26、，有層次分步驟地表達句的一種寫作。用這種方法展開段落，作者能夠清楚連貫地交待事物的本末，從而可以使讀者可以清晰、完整地理解文章的含義，例如：he flat opite, a woman heard the noise outside. When she looked outthrough the window, she discoveredt her neighbor was threatened bysomeone. She immediay called thesion. In answer to the call, a patrolcar arrived at the scene of

27、the crime quickly. Threemen went insidethe flaonce, and others guarded outside the building to prevent anyone fromesca.這段是按照事物發(fā)展的先后順序，敘述從發(fā)現(xiàn)案情、到趕到、包圍現(xiàn)場的過程。全文脈絡(luò)清晰，敘述的層次感強，結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊。常用于敘述法中的過渡連接詞有：, an the beginning, to start with, aftert,later, then, afterwards,he end, finally 等。4 對比法或比較法(comparison & cont

28、rast)將同類的事物按照某種特定的規(guī)則進行比較分析是一種常用的思維方法。通過對比，更容易闡述所述對象之間的異同和優(yōu)缺點，例如：The heart of an electronic computers in its vacuum tubes, or transistors.Its electronic circuits work a thousand times fastern the nicer cellshehuman brain. A problemt might take a human being a long time to solve canbe solved by a comp

29、uter in one minute.在這段文字上， 作者為了突出電子計算機運行速度之快，首先將它與人腦進行了比較， -a thousand times fastern - ;而后，又將這一概念具體到了 a problem上，通過對比使讀者從 - a long time - in one minute上有更加直觀的認識。常用于對本法或比較法上的過渡連接詞有：n, compared with 等。5 分類法(classification)在闡述某一概念的段落中，常用分類法。通過對概念中所包括的事物進行分門別類，分別加以敘述，使讀者有更為清晰的認識，如：Ever since humans have

30、 livethe earth, they have made use of variousforms of communication. Generally, this expresof thoughts and feelings hasbeenhe form of oral speech. When there is a language barrier, communicationisplished through sign language in whiotions stand for letters, wordsand ideas. Tourists and the people un

31、able to hear or speak have had to resort tothis form of expres. Many of these symbols of whole words are very vivid andexact and can be usedernationally; spelling, however, cannot. Body languagetransmits ideas or thoughts by certain actions, eitherentionally orunentionally. A nod signifies approval,

32、 while shaking the head indicates anegative reaction. Other forms of nonlinguistic language can be found in signalflags, Morse code, and picture signs.在該段中為了說明 topic sentence 中的 various forms of communication，作者將其分為 oral speech, sign language, body language 及 other forms of nonlinguisticlanguage，并逐加

33、闡述。采用這種方法的段落并沒有標志突出的連接詞，所述各項均為平行并列關(guān)系，所以沒有明顯的主次之分。6 因果分析法(cause and effect)在闡述某一現(xiàn)象的段落中，常采用因果分析法。例如：The role of womenodays society is changing. One reason ist womenhave begun to assert themselves as independent people through the womensmovement. Also, women are aware of the alternatives to staying at

34、home. Anotherreason ist increasing numbers of women who enter new fields anderestsserve as role ms for other women. Moreover, men areing moreconscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independenceitively.本段中，句提出了一種社會現(xiàn)象，推展句則對產(chǎn)生這種現(xiàn)象的原因作出各種解釋。常用于因果分析法的連接詞有：because, so, as a result

35、 等。7 定義法(definition)在科普文章的寫作中，定義法是必不可少的。通過下定義，可以使讀者對該事物有一個更直接的認識。Automation refers to theroduction of electronic control and automationoperation of productive machinery. It reduthe human factors, mental andphysical, in production, and is designed to makesible the manufacture ofmore goods with fewer

36、workers. The development of automation in Americanindustry has been called the Second Industrial Revolution.了解了 automation 和 Second Industrial Revolution 兩個這一段文字使概念，分別由 refers to 和 been called 引出。常出現(xiàn)在定義法中的詞語有：refer to, mean, call 等。8. 重復(fù)法(repetition)句子的一部分反復(fù)出現(xiàn)在段落中，這就是重復(fù)法。它往往造成一種步步緊逼的氣氛，使文章結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊，有力。比如

37、：Sincet time, which is far enough away from now, I have often thoughttfew people know what secrecy there ishe young, under terror. I wasortalterror of the young man who wanted my heart and liver; I wasortal terror ofmyerlocutor with the iron leg; I wasortal terror of myself, from whom anawful promis

38、e had been extracted; -該段中反復(fù)應(yīng)用了 I wasortal terror of 我經(jīng)常處于之中。以上，結(jié)合具體文章了展開段落的幾種方法。在實際寫作中，往往不必拘泥于一種寫作方法，而是將若干方法穿插在一起，使文章有聲有色。結(jié)尾段結(jié)尾的作用就是概括全文內(nèi)容，進一步強調(diào)或肯定文章的中心，使讀者加深印象；有時也用于展望未來，提出今后方向或令人深思的問題給讀者留下回味和思考的余地。但如何才能寫好英文短文的結(jié)尾呢? 下面就介紹幾種寫結(jié)尾段最常用的方法：1重復(fù)中心: 回到文章開頭闡明的中心或句上，達到再次肯定和強調(diào)的效果。(例 1)A sense of humor is reall

39、y one of the keys to happiness. It gives zest to lifeto make it worth living.(例 2)Will these benefits, it is no wondert sports and games have nowe more popular with peoplen ever.2作出結(jié)論: 文章最后用幾句話概括全文內(nèi)容，并進一步肯定文章的中心或作者的觀點。(例 1)In, a good teacher-student relationship can be mutualbenefil. The students gain knowledge eagerly and enjoyably, and the teachergains satisfaction from his job.(例2)On the whole there are more advantagesn disadvantageshe use ofTV. Yet different people may have differentitude to