二語習(xí)得期末復(fù)習(xí)資料

1、Chapter1introducingsecondlanguageacquisition1. SLA:atermthatrefersbothtothestudyofindividualsandgroupswhoarelearningalanguagesubsequenttolearningtheirfirstoneasyoungchildren,andtotheprocessoflearningthatlanguage.2. Secondlanguage:anofficiallyorsocietallydominantlanguage(notL1)neededforeducation,empl

2、oymentorotherbasicpurposes3. InformalL2learning:SLAthattakesplaceinnaturalisticcontexts4. FormalL2learning:instructedlearningthattakesplaceinclassroom5. Linguisticcompetence:theunderlyingknowledgethataspeaker/hearerhaveofalanguage.Chomskydistinguishesthisformlinguisticperformance.6. Linguisticperfor

3、mance:theuseoflanguageknowledgeinactualproduction.7. Firstlanguage/nativelanguage/mothertongue(L1):thelanguageacquiredinchildhood8. Simultaneousmultilingualism:abilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwereauqiredduringearlychildhood.9. Sequentialmultilingualism:abilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwerelearned

4、afterL1hadalreadybeenestablished.1. WhatarethethreebasicquestionsinSLA?(1) WhatexactlydoestheL2learnercometoknow?(2) HowdoestheL2leaneracquirethisknowledge?(3) Whyaresomelearnersmoresuccessfulthanothers?2. Whytherearenosimpleanswerstothesequestions?(P2)Chapter2foundationsofsecondlanguageacquisition1

5、. Multilingualism:theabilitytousemorethanonelanguage.2. Bilingualism:theabilitytousetwolanguages.3. Monolingualism:theabilitytouseonlyonelanguage.4. Multilingualcompetence:thecompoundstateofamindwithtwoormoregrammars”5. Monolingualcompetence:knowledgeofonlyonelanguage.6. Learnerlanguage:alsocalledin

6、terlanguagewhichreferstotheintermediatestatesorinterimgrammarsofleanerlanguageasitmovestowardthetargetL2.7. Positivetransfer:appropriateincorporation(合并，編入)ofanL1structureorruleinL2structure.8. Negativetransfer:inappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleinL2use,alsocalledinterference.9. Fossilizatio

7、n:astablestateinSLAwherelearnersceasetheirinterlanguagedevelopmentbeforetheyreachtargetnormsdespitecontinuingL2inputandpassageoftime.10. Poverty-of-the-stimulus:theargumentthatbecauselanguageinputtochildrenisimpoverished(窮盡的)andtheystillacquireL1,theremustbeaninnatecapacityforL1acquisition.11. Innat

8、ecapacity:anaturalability,usuallyreferringtochildren;snaturalabilitytolearnoracquirelanguage.1. Whatisthenatureoflanguagelearning?(1) Simultaneous/sequentialmultilingualism(2) Theroleofnaturalabilitya) Humansarebornwithanaturalabilityorinnatecapacitytolearnanotherlanguage.b) Aschildrenmature,sodothe

9、irlanguageabilities.c) Individualvariationmayoccurinlearning;therateoflearningcandiffer,buttherearestageseveryonegoesthrough.d) “Cutoffpoint-iftheprocessdoesnothappenatayoungage,youllneverlearnthelanguage.(關(guān)鍵期假說)(CriticalPeriodHypothesis)(3) Theroleofsocialexperiencea) Childrenwillneveracquirelangua

10、geunlessthatlanguageisusedwiththemandaroundthem,nomatterwhatistheirlanguage.b) Aslongaschildrenareexperiencinginputandsocialinteraction,therateandsequenceofdevelopmentdoesntchange.c) Theonlythingthatmaychangeispronunciation,vocabulary,andsocialfunction.2. Whataresomebasicsimilaritiesanddifferencesin

11、L1andL2learning?(P17表格)(1) SimilaritiesbetweenL1andL2a) DevelopmentstagesInitialState-knowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesIntermediateState-BasiclanguagedevelopmentFinalState-Outcomeoflearningb) Necessaryconditions:Input(2) DifferencesbetweenL1andL2(P17表格)3. Whatisthelogicalproblemoflanguag

12、eacquisition?(1) Childrenknswledgeoflanguagegoesbeyondwhatcouldbelearnedfromtheinputtheyreceive.(Poverty-of-thestimulus)(2) Constraintsandprinciplescannotbelearned(3) Universalpatternsofdevelopmentcannotbeexplainedbylanguage-specificinput.(如果說普遍語法存在孩子們腦中，那語言輸入起的作用又如何解釋呢？)4. FrameworkforSLA(P24&P26)P

13、erspectives,foci,andframeworksperspectivefociframeworkLinguisticInternalTransformational-GenerativeGrammarPrinciplesandParametersModelMinimalistProgramexternalFunctionalismpsychologyLanguaheandthebrainNeurolinguisticsLearningprocessesInformationProcessingProcessabilityConnectionismIndividualdifferen

14、ceHumanisticmodelsSocialMicrosocialVariationTheoryAccomodationTheorySocioculturalTheoryMacrosocialEthnographyofCommunicationAcculturationTheorySocialPsychology5. Giveatleastthreereasonsthatmanyscientistsbelieveinsomeinnatecapacityforlanguage(1)Childrenbegintolearntheirlanguageatthesameage,andinmucht

15、hesamewayregardlessofwhatthelanguageis.(2) Childrenarenotlimitedtorepeatingwhattheyheard;theycanunderstandandcreatenovel(新穎)utterance.(3) Thereisacut-offageforL1acquisition,beyondwhichitcanneverbecompleted.6. Linguistshavetakenaninternalandexternalfocustothestudyoflanguageacquisition.Whatisthediffer

16、encebetweenthetwo?Theinternalfocusseekstoaccountforspeakersinternalized,underlyingknowledgeoflanguage.Theexternalfocusemphasizeslanguageuse,includingthefunctionsoflanguagewhicharerealizedinlearnersproductionatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Chapter3thelinguisticsofsecondlanguageacquisition1. Interferen

17、ce:alsocallednegativetransfer,whichmeansinappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleinL2use.2. Interlanguage:alsocalledlearnerlanguage,whichreferstotheintermediatestatesorinterimgrammarsofleanerlanguageasitmovestowardthetargetL2.3. Naturalorder:auniversalsequenceinthegrammaticaldevelopmentoflanguagel

18、earners.4. Universalgrammar:alinguisticframeworkdevelopedmostprominentlybyChomskywhichclaimsthatL1acquisitionscanbeaccountedforonlybyinnateknowledgethatthehumanspeciesisgeneticallyendowedwith.Thisknowledgeincludeswhatalllanguageshaveincommon.5. Languagefaculty:termusedbyChomskyfoeacomponentofthehuma

19、nmind”thataccountsforchildrensinnateknowledgeoflanguage.6. Principles:properties(固有屬性)ofalllanguagesoftheworld;partofChomskysuniversalgrammar.7. Parameters:limitedoptionsinrealizationofuniversalprincipleswhichaccountforgrammaticalvariationbetweenlanguagesoftheworld.PartofChomskystheoryofuniversalgra

20、mmar.8. Initialstate:thestartingpointoflanguageacquisition;itisthoughttoincludetheunderlyingknowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesthatareinlearnersheadsattheverystartofL1orL2acquisition.9. Finalstate:theoutcomeofL1andL2learning,alsoknownasthestablestateofadultgrammar.10. Markedness:abasicforc

21、lassificationoflanguagesaccordingtowhetheraspecificfeatureoccursmorefrequentlythanacontrastingelementinthesamecategory,islesscomplexstructurallyorconceptually,orismorenormal“orexpectedalongsomedimensions.11. Grammaticalization(語法化):adevelopmentalprocessinwhichagrammaticalfunction(suchasexpressionofp

22、asttime)isfirstconveyedbysharedextralinguisticknowledgeandinferencingbasedonthecontextofdiscourse,thenbyalexicalword(suchasyesterday),andonlylaterbyagrammaticalmarker(suchasthesuffix-ed).Thenatureoflanguage1. Whatwelearninlinguisticperspective?Whatarethecharacteristicsoflanguage?BothL1andL2learnersa

23、cquireknowledgeatthesedifferentlevels:lexicon(詞匯學(xué)),phonology(語音學(xué)),morphology(構(gòu)詞法),syntax(句法).Languagesaresystemic,symbolicandsocial.Contrastiveanalysis2. Whatiscontrastiveanalysis?CAisanapproachtothestudyofSLAwhichinvolvespredictingandexplaininglearnerproblemsbasedonacomparisonofL1andL2todeterminesi

24、milaritiesanddifferences.3. Whatisthegoalofcontrastiveanalysis?(assumptions)(1) IfL2acquisitionisdisturbedbythehabitsofyournativelanguage,itisreasonabletofocusonthedifferencesbetweennativeandtargetlanguage.(2) Contrastiveanalysishadapracticalgoal:Ifyourecognizethedifferencesbetweenyournativelanguage

25、andthetargetlanguage,youareabletoovercomethelinguistichabitsofyournativelanguagethatinterferewiththehabitsofthetargetlanguage.4. Whatarethecritiquesofcontrastiveanalysis?(1) TheprocessofL2acquisitionisnotsufficientlydescribedbythecharacterizationoferrors.(2) ErrorsinL2acquisitiondonotonlyarisefromin

26、terference.(3) ThestructuraldifferencesbetweentwolanguagesarenotsufficienttopredicttheoccurrenceoferrorsinL2acquisition.Erroranalysis1.Whatiserroranalysis?EAisbasedonthedescriptionandanalysisofactuallearnererrorsinL2,ratherthanonidealizedlinguisticstructuresattributedtonativespeakersofL1andL2(asinCA

27、).2.WhatisthedifferencebetweenCAandEA?ContrastiveanalysisErroranalysisPedagogicalorientationScientificorientationFocusoninput,practice,inductivelearningFocusonlinguisticandcognitiveprocessesErrorsoftransferMultipletypesoferrors3. WhataretheshortcomingsofEA?(1) Ambiguityinclassification.(不知道是具體是哪個(gè)原因?qū)?/p>

28、致比如時(shí)態(tài)錯(cuò)誤，可能是一語影響，也可能是在一語中出現(xiàn)過的universaldevelopmentalprocess)(2) Lackofpositivedata.(正確的被忽略，只關(guān)注錯(cuò)誤不能看出學(xué)生學(xué)到什么)(3) Potentialforavoidance.(學(xué)生會(huì)避免錯(cuò)誤，這樣錯(cuò)誤就不能全部被觀察)四、Interlanguage1. Whatarethecharacteristicsofinterlanguage?(1) Systematic.(2) Dynamic.(3) Variable.(可變性)althoughsystematic,differencesincontextresu

29、ltindifferentpatternsoflanguageuse.(4) Reducedsystem,bothinformandfunction.(學(xué)習(xí)者經(jīng)常會(huì)簡單化)2. TherearedifferencesbetweenILdevelopmentandL1acquisition,includingdifferentcognitiveprocessesinvolved:(1) LanguagetransferfromL1toL2.(2) Transfertraining.(3) Strategiesofsecondlanguagelearning.(避免等)(4) Strategies

30、ofsecondlanguagelearning.(為方便不要復(fù)數(shù)等)(5) Overgeneralizationofthetargetlanguagelinguisticmaterial.3. ThebeginningandtheendofILaredefinedrespectivelyaswheneveralearnerfirstattemptstoconveymeaningintheL2andwheneverdevelopmentpermanentlystops,buttheboundariesarenotentirelyclear.Identificationoffossilizati

31、onisevenmorecontroversial.五、Monitormodel(Theinputhypothesismodel)1. Whichfivehypotheses(假定)doesthemodelconsistof?(課本P45!)(1) Acquisition-learninghypothesis(2) Monitorhypothesis(3) Naturalorderhypothesis(4) Inputhypothesis(5) Affectivefilterhypothesis2. WhatisLADinthismodel?TheLADismadeupofthenatural

32、languagelearningabilitiesofthehumanmind,totallyavailableinL1acquisition,availableinL2acquisitionaccordingtothelevelofthefilter.But,theprocessoflearning,unliketheprocessofacquisition,usesfacultiesofmindoutsidetheLAD.3. 圖示Learntknowledge(Monitoring)ComporehensibleinputLanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)Acq

33、uired,knowledge-.OutputAffectivefilter4. WhatarepointsoftheconsensusofearlylinguisticstudyofSLA?(1) Whatisbeingacquiredthroughadynamicinterlanguagesystem(2) HowSLAtakesplaceinvolvescreativementalprocesses(3) Whysomelearnersaremoresuccessfulthanothersrelatesprimarytotheage.5. Whatistheroleofgrammarac

34、cordingtoKrashen?Theonlyinstanceinwhichtheteachingofgrammarcanresultinlanguageacquisition(andproficiency)iswhenthestudentsareinterestedinthesubjectandthetargetlanguageisusedasamediumofinstruction.6、 Universalgrammar1. Differencesoflinguisticcompetenceandperformance(見Chapter1名詞解釋)2. WhatisUG?(名詞解釋)3.

35、 UGandL1acquisition(1) Whatthechildacquireisselectingparametricoptions.(2) UnlikeSLA,attitudes,motivationsandsocialcontextplaynorole.4. UGandSLA,therearethreeimportantquestions(1) WhatistheinitialstateofSAL?Interference(看參數(shù)相同不相同);noagreementonaccesstoUG(2) WhatisthenatureofILandhowdoesitchangeoverti

36、me?定參數(shù)的過程Languagefaculty;positive/negativeevidence(起作用)；constructionism;fossilization(3) WhatisthefinalstateinSLA?(P52五個(gè)達(dá)不到的原因)7、 Functionalapproaches(systemiclinguistics)1. Whatarethefourfunctionalapproaches?TheyareSystemicLinguistics;FunctionalTypology;Function-to-formmapping;Informationorganizati

37、on.2. WhatisSystemicLinguistics(系統(tǒng)功能語言學(xué))？DevelopedbyHillidayinthelate1950s,itisamodelforanalyzinglanguageintermsoftheinterrelatedsystemsofchoicesthatareavailableforexpressingmeaning.兒童的語言體系是一個(gè)意義體系，語言是從意義體系逐漸發(fā)展而來，經(jīng)歷過有簡單到復(fù)雜的過程。不同有不同意義，根據(jù)需要選擇最佳的(紅綠燈)。3. Whatacquirebylanguagelearnersismeaningpotential.T

38、herearesevenfunctionsoflanguage.(P53)4. Systemiclinguistsadvancefourtheoreticalclaimsaboutlanguage:a) Thatlanguageuseisfunctional;b) Thatitsfunctionistomakemeanings;c) Thatthesemeaningsareinfluencedbythesocialandcontextinwhichtheyareexchanged.d) Thattheprocessofusinglanguageisasemioticprocess,aproce

39、ssofmakingmeaningsbychoosing.5. Allofthefunctionalapproachesdiscussedherebasicallyagreeonthefollowing:a) WhatisbeingacquiredinSLAisasystemforconveyingmeaning,b) Howlanguageisacquiredimportantlyinvolvescreativelearnerinvolvementincommunication,andc) UnderstandingofSLAprocessesisimpossibleiftheyareiso

40、latedfromcircumstancesofuse.Chapter4thepsychologyofsecondlanguageacquisition1. Lateralization:differentspecificationoftwohalvesofthebrain.Forexample,thelefthemispherebecomesspecializedformostlanguageactivity,manybelieveduringacriticalperiodforlanguagedevelopment.2. Criticalperiodhypothesis(臨界期假設(shè)):th

41、eclaimthatchildrenhavetheonlyalimitednumberofyearsduringwhichtheycanacquiretheirL1flawlessly;iftheysufferbraindamagetothelanguageareas,brainplasticityinchildhoodwouldallowotherareasofthebraintotakeoverthelanguagefunctionsofthedamagedarea,butbeyondacertainage,normallanguagedevelopmentwouldnotbepossib

42、le.ThisconceptiscommonlyextendedtoSLAaswell,intheclaimthatonlychildrenarelikelytoachievenativeornear-nativeproficiencyinL2.3. Informationprocessing(IP):acognitiveframeworkwhichassumesthatSLA(likelearningofotherdomains)proceedsfromcontroltoautomaticprocessingandinvolvesprogressivereorganizationofknow

43、ledge.4. Controlledprocessing:raninitialstageofthelearningprocessthatdemandslearnersattention.5. Automaticprocessing:afteraninitialstageofcontrolprocessing,automaticprocessingisastageinlearningthatrequireslessmentalspaceandattentioneffortonthelearnerspart.6. Reconstructing:thereorganizationofknowled

44、gethattakeplaceinthecentralprocessingstageofinformationprocessing.7. Input:whateversampleofL2leanerexposeto.8. Output:inSLA,thelanguagethatlearnersproduceinspeech/signorinwriting.9. U-shapeddevelopment:asequenceofacquisitionforelementsofbothL1andL2wherelearneruseaninitiallycorrectformsuchaspluralfee

45、t,thenanincorrectfoots.Finally,learnersreturntofeetwhentheybegintoacquireexceptionstothepluralinflectionrule.10. Connectionism:acognitiveframeworkforexplaininglearningprocesses,beginninginthe1980sandbecomingincreasinglyinfluential.ItassumesthatSLAresultsfromincreasingstrengthofassociationsbetweensti

46、mulusandresponse.11. Aptitude:anindividualsetofcharacteristicswhichcorrelatewithsuccessinlanguagelearning.12. Motivation:aneedanddesiretolearn.13. Cognitivestyle:anindividualspreferredwayofprocessing:i.e.ofperceiving,conceptualizing,organizingandrecallinginformation.14. Learningstrategies:thebehavio

47、randtechniquesthatindividualsadoptintheeffortstolearnL2.1. Inpsychologicalrespective,whatarethethreefoci?Whatisstressedineach?First,itfocusonlanguageandbrain,addressingwhatisbeingacquiredinaphysicalsense;second,itfocusesonthelearningprocess(IPandconnectionism),addressinghowacquisitiontakesplace.Fina

48、lly,itfocusesonthedifferencesonlearners,addressingthequestionofwhysomeL2learnersaremoresuccessfulthanothers.2. ItappearsthatL1andL2arestoredinsomewhatdifferentareasofthebrain,andtherighthemispheremightbemoreinvolvedinL2thanL1.Age/lessplasticity;howindependentarethelanguagesofmultilingualspeakers?(co

49、ordinate,compoundandsubordinate)3. WhatarethethreestagesofIP?Whatmustlearnersdotomakeinputavailableforprocessing?Theyareinput,centralprocessingandoutput.(Centralprocessingistheheartofthemodel,wherelearningoccurs,fromcontrolledtoautomaticprocessingandwherereconstructingtakesplace.）|Learnersmustnotice

50、orpayattentiontoinputtomakeitavailableforprocessing;thiskindofinputiscalledintake.|SwaincontendsthatoutputisnecessaryforsuccessfulL2learningbecauseithelpsdevelopautomaticitythroughpracticeandbecauseithelpslearnersnoticeintheirownknowledge.（區(qū)另1J于monitormodel中的只要有enoughcomprehensiveinput就可以了）4. Whatar

51、ethetheoriesregardingorderofacquisition?Theyaremultidimensionalmodel（P76）andprocessabilitytheory.5. Whatiscompetitionmodel?ItisafunctionalapproachtoSLAwhichassumesthatalllinguisticperformanceinvolvesmapping“betweenexternalformandinternalfunction.（根據(jù)語境來選擇son的用詞）6. Theconnectionistapproachtolearningfo

52、cusesontheincreasingstrengthofassociationsbetweenstimuliandresponse,consideringlearningachangeinthestrengthoftheseassociations.7. Thedifferencesbetweenlearnersareage（P82）,sex,aptitude,motivation,cognitivestyle,personality,andlearningstrategies.8. Motivationlargelydeterminesthelevelofeffortwhichlearn

53、ersexpendatvariousstagesintheirL2development,oftenakeytoultimatelevelofproficiency.Twotypesofmotivationareintegratedandinstrumentalmotivation（融和型動(dòng)機(jī)和工具型動(dòng)機(jī)）.ThereisahighcorrelationbetweenstrengthofmotivationandlevelofL2achievement.9. Whatiscognitivestyle?Cognitivestylereferstoindividualspreferredwayof

54、informationprocessing,i.e.ofperceiving,conceptualizing,organizing,andrecallinginformation.Cognitivestyleiscloselyrelatedtoandinteractswithpersonalityfactorsandlearningstrategies.10. Among5pairsoftraitsincognitivestyleconcerningL2proficiency（P87）,thefield-dependent/field-independentanddeductive/induc

55、tivearemostfrequentlyreferredtoinSLA.11. Whatisthedifferencebetweenbottom-upandtop-downprocessing?Deductive（演繹）ortop-downprocessingbeginswithapredictionorruleandthenappliesittointerpretparticularinstancesofinput.Inductive（歸納）orbottom-upprocessingbeginswithexamininginputtodiscoversomepatternandthenfo

56、rmulatesageneralizationorrulethataccountsforitandthattheninturnbeapplieddeductively.（inductive是aptitude四種能力之）12. 10PairsofPersonalityTraitsAnxious-Self-confidentRisk-avoiding-Risk-takingShy-AdventuresomeIntroverted-ExtrovertedInner-directed-Other-directedReflective-ImpulsiveImaginative-Uninquisitive

57、Creative-UncreativeEmpathetic-InsensitivetoothersTolerantofambiguity-Closure-oriented13. WhatistheAtypologyoflanguage-learningstrategies?WhatarethegoodLearnerTraitsinL2LearningStrategies?TheyareMeta-cognitivestrategy,cognitivestrategyandsocial/affectivestrategy.Meta-cognitivestrategiesarethosewhicha

58、ttempttoregulatelanguagelearningbyplanningandmonitoring.Cognitivestrategiesmakeuseofdirectanalysisoflinguisticmaterial.Social/affectivestrategiesinvolveinteractionwithothers.1) Concernforlanguageform(butalsoattentiontomeaning);2) Concernforcommunication;3) Activetaskapproach;4) Awarenessofthelearningprocess;5) Capacitytousestrategiesflexiblyinaccordancewithtaskrequirements.Chapter5socialcontextsofseco