Memory--Cognitive-Psychology-IV-2-認知心理學

1、二、 加工水平說o Craik& Lockhart（1972）最早提出，針對）最早提出，針對兩種記憶說難以解決的問題：短時記憶兩種記憶說難以解決的問題：短時記憶容量有限的性質(zhì)沒有實質(zhì)的說明；兩種容量有限的性質(zhì)沒有實質(zhì)的說明；兩種記憶的編碼方式存在不同，難以解釋；記憶的編碼方式存在不同，難以解釋；兩種記憶都存在遺忘，它們的特征應(yīng)該不兩種記憶都存在遺忘，它們的特征應(yīng)該不同，難以解釋。同，難以解釋。o 理論假設(shè)：理論假設(shè)：記憶不存在階段性，保持時間記憶不存在階段性，保持時間的長短取決于加工的深度。的長短取決于加工的深度。 o Craik and Lockhart (1972) first p

2、roposed that the problem with the two stage memory model is difficult to be resolved: (1) the limited nature of the short-term memory capacity is not specified; (2) two stage memory encoding are different and difficult to explain; (3) if two stage memory is forgotten and their characteristics should

3、 be different, therefore, difficult to explain. o Theoretical hypothesis: memory storage does not exist, the length of retaining time depends on the depth of processing. o 1、記憶保持的時間長短是加工深度的直接函數(shù)，、記憶保持的時間長短是加工深度的直接函數(shù)，記憶痕跡是信息加工的副產(chǎn)品。記憶痕跡是信息加工的副產(chǎn)品。o 不同的加工深度：表淺的感覺分析（不同的加工深度：表淺的感覺分析（S的物理的物理特征）特征） 較深的、較復雜的、

4、抽象和語較深的、較復雜的、抽象和語義的分析（模式識別和意義的提取）義的分析（模式識別和意義的提取）o 深度越深，則有愈多的人認知加工和語義加工深度越深，則有愈多的人認知加工和語義加工o 2、影響加工深度的因素很多，例如刺激的性質(zhì)、影響加工深度的因素很多，例如刺激的性質(zhì)、可用于加工的時間、加工的任務(wù)等?？捎糜诩庸さ臅r間、加工的任務(wù)等。o 3、“側(cè)向擴散側(cè)向擴散”的觀點：無先后，不一定由淺的觀點：無先后，不一定由淺到深到深基本觀點1.Memory retention is a direct function of the time taken for depth processing, memor

5、y trace is a byproduct of information processing. oDifferent depth processing : (1) the feeling of superficial analysis (physical characteristics of Stimulus) (2) a deeper, more complex, abstract and semantic analysis (pattern recognition and the meaning extraction) oThe deeper the depth, the more t

6、here is cognitive processing and semantic processing 2.Many factors affect the depth of processing, such as the nature of the stimulus, processing time for a task, the process, etc. 3.“Lateral Diffusion point of view: no order, not necessarily from shallow to deep 1、Craik等（等（1975）三種）三種加工水平的實驗加工水平的實驗

7、P1302、Bower &Karlin（1974）用照片得到類似的結(jié)用照片得到類似的結(jié)果果P130 兩種加工水平：性別、兩種加工水平：性別、人格或外表人格或外表3、Rogers等（等（1977）在）在三個水平上加一個三個水平上加一個“自我參照自我參照”，證明，證明自我參照的加工水平自我參照的加工水平最深。最深。1.Craik et al. (1975) three level of processing experiment P130 2.Bower & Karlin (1974) use pictures to get similar results P130 Two Lev

8、el Of Processing: Gender, Personality or Appearance 3.Rogers et al. (1977) added another level to three levels self-reference, and proved that self-reference has the deepest level of processing. o Craik等等認為，記憶是認為，記憶是知覺的副產(chǎn)品，而知知覺的副產(chǎn)品，而知覺是包含不同的階段覺是包含不同的階段或水平的加工過程。或水平的加工過程。n例如，當一個人理解例如，當一個人理解yAchtyAcht這

9、樣的一個詞時，這樣的一個詞時，要將注意力集中于要將注意力集中于3 3種種不同認知不同認知“水平水平”的特的特征上：征上： o Craik et al. believed that memory is a byproduct of perception, and perception contains different stages or levels of processing. o For example, when a person understands a word such as yAcht, he needs to concentrate on three different “

10、levels” of knowledge features: o 第一層水平是外部的表面特征第一層水平是外部的表面特征：這個詞有：這個詞有5 5個字母，個字母，其中一個是元音字母，它是以大寫字母寫出的，等其中一個是元音字母，它是以大寫字母寫出的，等等。這是等。這是字形水平的加工字形水平的加工；o 第二層水平是將單詞的書面特征轉(zhuǎn)化為有聽覺參與第二層水平是將單詞的書面特征轉(zhuǎn)化為有聽覺參與的語音編碼的語音編碼。我們在判斷。我們在判斷yachtyacht與與hothot是否押韻的時是否押韻的時候，就必須依賴于語音編碼。這是候，就必須依賴于語音編碼。這是語音水平的加工語音水平的加工。o 第三層水平是詞義

11、的確定第三層水平是詞義的確定。即知道。即知道yachtyacht的意義是什的意義是什么。這是么。這是語義水平的加工語義水平的加工。 o The first level is external layer of surface features: this word has five letters, one of which is a vowel letter, it is written in the capital letter, and so on. This is the symbolic level processing. o The second level is characte

12、rized by the speech encoding of the written word: We need to determine whether yAcht rhymes with hot, that is we must rely on speech coding. This is a speech levels of processing. o The third level is the determination of the meaning: That is to know what is the meaning of yAcht. This is the semanti

13、c level of processing. o Clay Clay 和和 Lockhart(1972)Lockhart(1972)認為覺認為覺察單詞或任何別的事物察單詞或任何別的事物的過程都包含著從表面的過程都包含著從表面( (認知系統(tǒng)的表層水平認知系統(tǒng)的表層水平) )到意義到意義( (認知系統(tǒng)的深認知系統(tǒng)的深層水平層水平) ) 的加工階段。的加工階段。o 他們進一步指出，隨之他們進一步指出，隨之而至的記憶與最初的知而至的記憶與最初的知覺加工深度直接相關(guān)：覺加工深度直接相關(guān)：對事物最初知覺的加工對事物最初知覺的加工水平越深，記憶就越好。水平越深，記憶就越好。oClay and Lockhar

14、t (1972) argued that words perception or any other things is included with the process of the surface (surface level of cognition system) towards the meaning (the processing stage of the deeper level of the cognitive system). oThey further pointed out that the initial perceptual process of memory an

15、d deeper processing are directly related: the more the initial perception of things towards the deeper level of processing, the more better the memory. o 克雷克和塔爾文克雷克和塔爾文 (1975(1975）向本科生被試呈現(xiàn)詞語，向本科生被試呈現(xiàn)詞語，并要求被試就每一個詞回并要求被試就每一個詞回答一些問題。對這些問題答一些問題。對這些問題的思考可以引起對這些詞的思考可以引起對這些詞的不同水平的加工。的不同水平的加工。n例如，被試看見單詞例如，被

16、試看見單詞bearbear呈呈現(xiàn)在屏幕上，并被問以下三現(xiàn)在屏幕上，并被問以下三個問題中的一個：個問題中的一個：o它是由大寫字母寫出的嗎它是由大寫字母寫出的嗎? ?o它與它與chair chair 押韻嗎押韻嗎? ?o它是一只動物嗎它是一只動物嗎? ?o Craig and Tulvig (1975) shown words to the undergraduate subjects, and asked the participants to answer some questions regarding every word. Attention to these problems can

17、cause the different levels of processing of these words. For example, when the participants saw the word bear appearing on the screen, they were asked one of the following three questions: o It is composed of uppercase letters? o Does it rhyme with chair? o It is an animal? o 回答第一個問題時，只回答第一個問題時，只需核查

18、詞的表面需核查詞的表面( (字形的字形的) )特征；回答第二個問題特征；回答第二個問題時，必須考慮詞的聲音時，必須考慮詞的聲音( (或它的音素編碼或它的音素編碼) )；回；回答第三個問題時，必須答第三個問題時，必須理解詞的含義或從語義理解詞的含義或從語義上進行加工。上進行加工。o 研究者假設(shè)：研究者假設(shè)：加工水平加工水平深的詞比那些加工水平深的詞比那些加工水平淺的詞記憶得更好淺的詞記憶得更好( (語義語義的語音的字形的的語音的字形的) )。 oAnswering the first question, just needs to check word surface (shape) chara

19、cteristic; To answer the second question, one must consider the word sound (or its phoneme code); To answer the third question, one must understand the word meaning or process it semantically. oResearchers hypothesized that deep level of processing the word memory is better than those of the shallow

20、 level of processing word memory (semantics phonetics shape). o 研究者向被試呈現(xiàn)研究者向被試呈現(xiàn)6060個詞，并要求被試就個詞，并要求被試就每一個詞回答前面每一個詞回答前面3 3個個問題中的一個。然后問題中的一個。然后將這將這6060個看過的詞與個看過的詞與120120個沒有看過的詞混個沒有看過的詞混雜在一起。要被試選雜在一起。要被試選出剛才看過的出剛才看過的6060個單個單詞。猜對的幾率是詞。猜對的幾率是3333。 oResearchers presented 60 words to the participants, and

21、participants were required to answer one of the three questions on every word. Then these 60 read words were mixed with another 120 unseen words. The task for participants was to choose 60 words that they saw earlier. The probability to guess correctly is 33%. o 實驗情景分析：實驗情景分析：n實驗中的被試全都是大學生；實驗中的被試全都是

22、大學生；n材料是單個的詞和針對每個詞提出的問題；材料是單個的詞和針對每個詞提出的問題；n測試為再認測驗，被試被迫在固定數(shù)量的單詞中加以選測試為再認測驗，被試被迫在固定數(shù)量的單詞中加以選擇擇 ( (所以他們不得不猜測所以他們不得不猜測) )；n加工水平的操作是以一種特殊的形式進行的。加工水平的操作是以一種特殊的形式進行的。o 前面實驗結(jié)果的獲得，上述特征哪些是關(guān)鍵前面實驗結(jié)果的獲得，上述特征哪些是關(guān)鍵的，抑或它們?nèi)慷际顷P(guān)鍵的的，抑或它們?nèi)慷际顷P(guān)鍵的? ? oThe experimental scenario analysis: Experimental subjects were all c

23、ollege students; Material is single word and aimed at questions raised on each word; Measurement for the recognition tests, subjects were forced to choose between a fixed number of words (so they have to guess); The level of processing operations are carried out a special form.Experimental results a

24、cquired from the test, what are the key characteristics in the aforementioned, or are they all the important? o 詹金斯詹金斯(1979)(1979)提出了提出了一個考察結(jié)果普遍性一個考察結(jié)果普遍性問題的基本模型，如問題的基本模型，如下圖所示，這是一種下圖所示，這是一種記憶實驗的四面體模記憶實驗的四面體模型。型。o Jenkins (1979) proposed a basic model for the universality (generalization) problems o

25、f the experimental results, as shown in the figure below, this is a kind of overall model of memory research . Directional task/situation: instructions, policies, expectations and context材料材料：單詞、圖片、段落、材料的：單詞、圖片、段落、材料的組織組織Materials: words, pictures, paragraphs, material organization .測驗（關(guān)鍵的任務(wù)）測驗（關(guān)鍵的任

26、務(wù)）：自：自由回憶、線索回憶、再認、由回憶、線索回憶、再認、遷移遷移Measurement (critical tasks): free recall, cued recall, recognition, migration .Participants: college students, schizophrenia, chess player, childreno 在克雷克和塔爾文在克雷克和塔爾文(1975)(1975)的實驗中，研究的實驗中，研究者感興趣的是定向任務(wù)者感興趣的是定向任務(wù)( (引領(lǐng)被試以特定方引領(lǐng)被試以特定方式加工單詞的問題式加工單詞的問題) )是怎祥影響被試的記憶是怎祥影響

27、被試的記憶保持的。另外三個方面他們則不感興趣，保持的。另外三個方面他們則不感興趣，因此必須對這幾個方面進行控制：所有被因此必須對這幾個方面進行控制：所有被試均為大學生；記憶測驗是再認測試；記試均為大學生；記憶測驗是再認測試；記憶材料為單詞。這樣實驗結(jié)果的普遍性就憶材料為單詞。這樣實驗結(jié)果的普遍性就受到了限制。受到了限制。o Craig and Tulvig (1975) in their experiment, were interested in directional task (leading the participants in a particular way of process

28、ing word problems) to see how it influences subjects retentive memory. They were not interested in other three ways, therefore, must control these aspects: all subjects are college students; Memory measurement is performed through recognition tests; Memory materials is single word. The universality

29、of the experimental results is controlled in this manner. o 詹金斯的模型指出，任詹金斯的模型指出，任何實驗結(jié)果都要放到可何實驗結(jié)果都要放到可能被操作的其他潛在變能被操作的其他潛在變量的關(guān)系中加以考察。量的關(guān)系中加以考察。o 因此，有關(guān)結(jié)果普遍性因此，有關(guān)結(jié)果普遍性的問題可概括為：的問題可概括為：n如果其他控制變量被操如果其他控制變量被操作，是否可獲得同樣的作，是否可獲得同樣的結(jié)果結(jié)果? ? n如果自變量是以另外的如果自變量是以另外的定義方式被操作的，其定義方式被操作的，其結(jié)果能被重復嗎？結(jié)果能被重復嗎？oJenkins model i

30、ndicates that experimental results on other potential variable may be operating variables to test relationship. oTherefore, the universality problem of the results can be summarized as: oIf the other control variables are operated upon, whether the same results can be obtained? oIf the independent v

31、ariable is operated in the other defining manner, can the results still be replicated? INVESTIGATING THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON THE UNIVERSAL MEMORY PROCESSING LEVEL1.被試被試2.材料材料3.定向任務(wù)與情景定向任務(wù)與情景4.測驗測驗1. Participants 2. Material3. Directional Tasks and Situations 4. Measurement o 即大學生以外的被試即大學生以外的被試是否

32、顯示出加工水平是否顯示出加工水平效應(yīng)效應(yīng)( (語義加工后的語義加工后的材材 料記憶效果更好料記憶效果更好)? )? n墨菲和布朗墨菲和布朗(1975)(1975)考考察了學前兒童（年齡察了學前兒童（年齡在在5 5歲以下歲以下) )nCraikCraik（1977)1977)考察了考察了老年人老年人o Whether subjects other than the college students shows the level of processing effect (better semantic processing of materials after memory)? o Murph

33、y and Brown (1975) surveyed the pre-school children (under age 5) o Craik (1977), investigated the elderly peopleo 即加工水平效應(yīng)在用詞語以外的材料為對象即加工水平效應(yīng)在用詞語以外的材料為對象的研究中是否也存在呢的研究中是否也存在呢? ?n 史密斯和威諾格拉德史密斯和威諾格拉德(1978)(1978)以每以每8 8秒秒幅的速度幅的速度向被試呈現(xiàn)人的肖像。要求一組判斷每個人是向被試呈現(xiàn)人的肖像。要求一組判斷每個人是否有一個大鼻子否有一個大鼻子( (表面判斷表面判斷) )，要求另一組判

34、斷，要求另一組判斷每個人是否友善每個人是否友善( (深層判斷深層判斷) )，在后來的再認測，在后來的再認測驗中，那些判斷人臉是否友善的被試的再認成驗中，那些判斷人臉是否友善的被試的再認成績要優(yōu)于那些判斷績要優(yōu)于那些判斷 鼻子大小的被試。此結(jié)果確鼻子大小的被試。此結(jié)果確認了用肖像為材科的加工水平效應(yīng)。認了用肖像為材科的加工水平效應(yīng)。 2, METERIALo Does the level of processing effect also exists in other objects outside the study of words material? o Smith and Winogr

35、ad (1978) presented peoples portrait at a speed of every eight seconds. Required a set of judgment whether everyone has a big nose (surface judgment), asked everyone to determine whether another group is friendly (deep judgment), later in the recognition test, those who judged whether a human face f

36、riendly recognition results were better than those who judged the size of the nose. This result confirmed the level of processing effects with portraits material. o 墨菲和布朗墨菲和布朗(1975)(1975)使使用圖畫以學前兒童為用圖畫以學前兒童為被試在不同的加工水被試在不同的加工水平上進行測試，也顯平上進行測試，也顯示出和重復了加工水示出和重復了加工水平的基本效應(yīng)。平的基本效應(yīng)。o Murphy and brown (1975)

37、 used pictures for pre-school children tested on a different level of processing, also shows and repeats the basic effect of level of processing. o 變量的類別涉及實驗變量的類別涉及實驗的許多方面。它包括的許多方面。它包括給被試的指導語、實給被試的指導語、實驗任務(wù)的持定解釋、驗任務(wù)的持定解釋、被試使用的策略、自被試使用的策略、自變量的操作是組內(nèi)變量的操作是組內(nèi)（每一個被試接受每（每一個被試接受每一種實驗一種實驗) )還是組間還是組間的的( (每一個被

38、試只接每一個被試只接受一種實驗處理受一種實驗處理) )，等等。等等。oVariable categories involves many aspects of the experiment. Includes instructions for the subjects, explanation of the experimental tasks, policies, strategy used by the participants, the operation of the independent variable is within the group (each participant

39、receives each experimental treatment) or between groups (each participant only receives an experimental treatment), and so on. o 克雷克和塔爾文克雷克和塔爾文(1975)(1975)在偶然和有意學習的在偶然和有意學習的條件下對被試進行測條件下對被試進行測試，其結(jié)果表明加工試，其結(jié)果表明加工水平效應(yīng)在兩種條件水平效應(yīng)在兩種條件下均存在。下均存在。 o Craig and Tulvig (1975) under the condition of accidental an

40、d intentional learning tested the subjects, the results show that the level of processing effects exist in two conditions. o 加工水平效應(yīng)在兩種加工水平效應(yīng)在兩種測試類型（自由回憶測試類型（自由回憶或再認）中都多次出或再認）中都多次出現(xiàn)?，F(xiàn)。o 但研究者發(fā)現(xiàn)，有些但研究者發(fā)現(xiàn)，有些另外類型的測試中不另外類型的測試中不存在加工水平效應(yīng)或存在加工水平效應(yīng)或者甚至是相反的效應(yīng)。者甚至是相反的效應(yīng)。o The level of processing effect in two m

41、easurement types (free recall and recognition) have appeared many times. o But the researchers found that there are some other types of measurement, where there is no level of processing effect or even the opposite effect. o 莫里斯莫里斯(1977)(1977)及其同事及其同事用兩組大學生為被試。用兩組大學生為被試。要求一組大學生就單詞要求一組大學生就單詞進行判斷。對單詞進

42、行判斷。對單詞( (比比方，方，EAGLE)EAGLE)的提問被設(shè)的提問被設(shè)計為誘發(fā)語音的加工水計為誘發(fā)語音的加工水平平( (“_與與legallegal押韻押韻嗎嗎? ?”) )或語義的加工水或語義的加工水平平( (“_是一只大鳥是一只大鳥嗎嗎? ?”) )。被試就一半的。被試就一半的單詞回答語音方面的問單詞回答語音方面的問題，另一半則回答語義題，另一半則回答語義的問題。的問題。oMorris (1977) and his colleagues used two groups of college students as the subjects. Subjects were require

43、d to judge a set of words. For words (for example, the EAGLE) were designed to induce phonetic (voice) processing level (_ and legal rhyme?) or the semantic level of processing (_ is a big bird?). Half of the subjects were investigated about the voice problem of the word, the other half to answer ab

44、out the semantic problem.o 給第二組被試采用不同的測試方式，即給第二組被試采用不同的測試方式，即韻律韻律再認測試再認測試。在這種測試中，被試的任務(wù)是檢。在這種測試中，被試的任務(wù)是檢測一測一 個音節(jié)表并挑選出與早先所學過的單詞個音節(jié)表并挑選出與早先所學過的單詞押韻的單詞。例如，如果押韻的單詞。例如，如果beaglebeagle在測試詞表在測試詞表中，他們就要將它挑選出來因為它與所學中，他們就要將它挑選出來因為它與所學過的過的 eagleeagle押韻押韻( (在測試詞表中的單詞不在學在測試詞表中的單詞不在學習音節(jié)表中出現(xiàn)，它們只和學習音節(jié)表中的習音節(jié)表中出現(xiàn)，它們只和學

45、習音節(jié)表中的單詞押韻）。單詞押韻）。o To a second set of participants with different test ways, namely the rhythm recognition test. In this test, the test task was to detect a syllable and sort out the rhyming words with earlier learned words. For example, if “beagle” in the test word in the table, they will pick it

46、out. Because it rhymes with the earlier learned word “eagle” (the words in the vocabulary list test, do not appear in the syllable list. They only learn the syllable words that rhyme in the table). o 該結(jié)果說明，記憶的加工層次水平的實驗結(jié)果只該結(jié)果說明，記憶的加工層次水平的實驗結(jié)果只能推論運用自由回憶或再認進行測試的實驗結(jié)果，能推論運用自由回憶或再認進行測試的實驗結(jié)果，而不能推論到用其他測試方法（

47、如而不能推論到用其他測試方法（如韻律再認測試）韻律再認測試）的實驗中。的實驗中。o 依據(jù)這一實驗結(jié)果，莫里斯與其合作者依據(jù)這一實驗結(jié)果，莫里斯與其合作者(1977)(1977)提提出了一種新的理論出了一種新的理論傳輸適當性加工理論傳輸適當性加工理論，修改完善了記憶的加工層次水平理論，使得人們修改完善了記憶的加工層次水平理論，使得人們對記憶本質(zhì)的認識更加深入。對記憶本質(zhì)的認識更加深入。o The results indicate that, the memory processing and categorizing level experiment results can only be re

48、asoned with the free recall or recognition experimental results of the test, but the test can not concluded with other test methods (such as rhythm recognition test experiment). o Based on these results, Morris and his colleagues (1977) proposed a new theory - transfer appropriate processing theory,

49、 revised and improved the processing of memory hierarchy theory, helps people make in-depth understanding of the nature of memory. o 簡單復述和精細復述簡單復述和精細復述o 實驗：實驗：P132o 變量：插入的單詞數(shù)變量：插入的單詞數(shù)量或復述次數(shù)。量或復述次數(shù)。o 說明信息并不能通過說明信息并不能通過機械的復述而轉(zhuǎn)入長機械的復述而轉(zhuǎn)入長時記憶。時記憶。o Simple rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal o Experiment

50、: P132 o Variables: the number of words inserted or repeated. o Information cannot be mechanically repeated and transferred into long-term memory. 加工的一致性o 加工水平、項目和上下文的加工一致性加工水平、項目和上下文的加工一致性o 上下文愈豐富，對于項目的加工就愈精細，上下文愈豐富，對于項目的加工就愈精細，也愈不容易與其他項目混淆。如果沒有這樣也愈不容易與其他項目混淆。如果沒有這樣的上下文，即使涉及到項目的意義，記憶效的上下文，即使涉及到項目的意

51、義，記憶效果也不會提高。他們進一步提出了加工的精果也不會提高。他們進一步提出了加工的精細性和區(qū)分性的概念。這些看法都有待于深細性和區(qū)分性的概念。這些看法都有待于深入研究。它們對加工水平說確實具有意義。入研究。它們對加工水平說確實具有意義。o Processing level, the processing consistency of the project and context.o The more rich the context, the more the sophisticated processing of the project, also wont be easily conf

52、used with other projects. Wihtout such a context, even if involves the project is significant, it will not improve the memory effect. They further put forward the processing precision and concept distinction in nature. These views are subject to further study. Their theory for the level of processin

53、g is really meaningful. o加工不是系列加工，無先后，不一定由淺到深oProcessing is not a series, no order, not necessarily from shallow to deep o編碼的側(cè)向擴散編碼的側(cè)向擴散：指在某一個水平上，或者是較淺的水平或者是較深的水平，加工在橫向擴展開來。oLateral Diffusion of Encoding: refers to a certain level, or shallow or deep level, processing in lateral expansion. oCraik 19

54、79 實驗實驗:校對閱讀、要點閱讀oCraik 1979 experiment: key points of reading, reading points o 1、沒有跳出常識、沒有跳出常識 “理解越深，記憶越好。理解越深，記憶越好?！眔 2、定性的、模糊的陳述較多，定量的研究、定性的、模糊的陳述較多，定量的研究不充分。難以建立加工深度的客觀指標。不充分。難以建立加工深度的客觀指標。o 4、加工水平的劃分標準：劃分為多少層次、加工水平的劃分標準：劃分為多少層次或等級、之間的聯(lián)系怎樣。在不同的水平或等級、之間的聯(lián)系怎樣。在不同的水平中，是否存在序列加工問題，又是怎樣的中，是否存在序列加工問題，

55、又是怎樣的序列，該問題難以回避。序列，該問題難以回避。對加工水平說的質(zhì)疑1.Nothing different than the common sense the deeper the understanding, the better the memory. 2.More qualitative and uncertain statements, less sufficient quantitative research. Difficult to establish the objective indicators for the depth of processing3.The Processing Level Division Criteria: How many levels or grades can be divided, what is the link between them. In different level, whether there is a problem of sequence processing, and how to make sequence or order, the problem is difficult to avoid. o 多存貯說和兩種記憶說認為記憶是由幾個獨立的結(jié)多存貯說和兩種記憶說認為記憶是由幾個獨立的結(jié)構(gòu)組成