跨文化交際考前復(fù)習(xí)

1、Chapter 1 CultureI.定義Culture(from intellectual perspective):從知性角度定義文化：作為整體的人類智力成就的藝術(shù)和其他表現(xiàn)Culture(from anthropologic perspective)：從人類學(xué)角度定義文化：文化有清晰和模糊的行為模式構(gòu)成，這些模式通過(guò)符號(hào)獲得并傳播， 這些符號(hào)有人類群體的特別成就構(gòu)成，包括具體的人工制品。文化的基本核心由傳統(tǒng)思想和與其相關(guān)的價(jià)值觀構(gòu)成。Culture(from psychological perspective) : 從心理學(xué)角度定義文化：文化是使一個(gè)人類群體成員區(qū)別于其他人類群體的思維的

2、總體規(guī)劃。Culture(from sociological perspective): 從社會(huì)學(xué)角度定義文化：文化是一種可習(xí)得的，基于群體的認(rèn)知模式包括言語(yǔ)與非言語(yǔ)符號(hào)，態(tài)度，價(jià)值觀，信仰和非信仰系統(tǒng)以及行為。Culture(from intercultural communication perspective): 從跨文化交際學(xué)角度定義文化： 文化是個(gè)人和群體在種族發(fā)展過(guò)程中所獲得的知識(shí)，經(jīng)驗(yàn)，信仰，價(jià)值觀，行為，態(tài)度，階級(jí)，宗教，時(shí)間觀，角色，空間觀和藝術(shù)品的集合。Culture Identity: 文化身份：認(rèn)為自己歸屬于某一文化或民族群體的感覺(jué)。Subculture亞文化：指存在于

3、主流文化中的文化，其劃分通常基于經(jīng)濟(jì)地位，社會(huì)階層，民族，種族或地理區(qū)域。Co-culture 共文化指具有獨(dú)特的交際特征，感知特點(diǎn)，價(jià)值觀，信仰和行為，區(qū)別于其他群體，社團(tuán)以及主流文化的群體或社團(tuán)。Subgroup 亞群體相對(duì)于亞文化和共文化群體，亞群體通常規(guī)模不大，也不一定有文化群體時(shí)代相傳積累的價(jià)值觀念和行為模式。Chapter 2 Communication and Intercultural Communication1. Sender/Source信息發(fā)出者/信息源：指?jìng)鬟f信息的人2. Message信息： 只引起信息接受者反應(yīng)的任何信號(hào)。3. Encoding: 編碼：之信息發(fā)出

4、者選擇言語(yǔ)或用非言語(yǔ)的方式發(fā)出有目的的信息的行為。4. Channel/Medium渠道/媒介： 只發(fā)送信息的方法5. Receiver:信息接受者：指注意到信息并且賦予信息某些含義的人6. Decoding: 解碼： 指信息接受者賦予其受到的言語(yǔ)或符號(hào)信息意義的行為。7. Feedback: 反饋“ 指信息接受者對(duì)信息源信息所作出的反應(yīng)。8. Noise: 干擾：指妨礙信息交流的各種因素。包括外界干擾，生理干擾，心理干擾和語(yǔ)義干擾。9. Context: 語(yǔ)境，指交際發(fā)生的環(huán)境，包括自然語(yǔ)境，社會(huì)語(yǔ)境和人際語(yǔ)境。10. Intercultural communication: 跨文化交際，

5、指的是那些在衛(wèi)華人之和符號(hào)系統(tǒng)上存在差異的人們之間的交際。這些差異足以改變整個(gè)交際事件。11. International communication: 國(guó)際交流，指發(fā)生在國(guó)家和政府之間而非發(fā)生在個(gè)人之間的交際， 此種交際非常正式和儀式化。12. Interracial communication: 跨種族交際，指交流信息的信息源和信息接受者來(lái)自不同的種族的交際。13. Interethnic communication: 跨民族交際：來(lái)自一個(gè)國(guó)家或文化內(nèi)部的不同民族群體的人們之間的交際。14. Intercultural communication:文化內(nèi)交際指統(tǒng)一文化內(nèi)部的成員之間的交際。

6、Chapter 3 Cultures Influence on Perception1. Sensation:感覺(jué)，是人們意識(shí)到周圍環(huán)境的神經(jīng)過(guò)程。2. Perception知覺(jué)： 是一種人們通過(guò)各種感覺(jué)來(lái)覺(jué)察事物，事件，任何人的行為的過(guò)程。它是解釋感覺(jué)信息更為高價(jià)的認(rèn)知過(guò)程。3. Selection:選擇，是從周圍的選擇的刺激信息中篩選出所需要的信息的過(guò)程。4. Organization組織： 是把從周圍選擇的刺激信息，以一種有意義的方式整理，組合的過(guò)程。5. Interpretation:釋義， 是賦予感覺(jué)信息意義的過(guò)程， 類似于解碼過(guò)程。Chapter 4 Intercultural C

7、ommunication Barriers1. Anxiety: 焦慮，當(dāng)人們不知道如何迎合他人對(duì)自己的期待，過(guò)多的關(guān)注自己情緒以至不能全心投入到交際事物中去時(shí)，就會(huì)產(chǎn)生焦慮。2. Uncertainty: 不確定，是指人們無(wú)法從認(rèn)知的角度去解釋交際活動(dòng)中自己或他人的感覺(jué)及行為，這種認(rèn)知角度解釋能力的欠缺是某種引起焦慮的含糊情鏡導(dǎo)致的。3. Assuming similarity instead of difference: 假定一致性， 是指認(rèn)為來(lái)自另一文化的他人和自己相似或他人的處境與自己處境的相似，兒事實(shí)上卻并非如此。4. Ethnocentrism: 民族優(yōu)越感，只從本國(guó)文化得標(biāo)準(zhǔn)出發(fā)

8、，消極地審視另一文化。5. Stereotypes: 文化定勢(shì)，指基于明顯的或受到認(rèn)可的群體身份，對(duì)目標(biāo)群體中的個(gè)體成員所持有的正面或反面的判斷。6. Prejudice: 偏見(jiàn)，指對(duì)于某一特定群體，種族，宗教，或性取向的無(wú)端地憎惡和懷疑。7. Racism: 種族主義，指基于種族把性格特點(diǎn)或地位歸因于個(gè)人的任意政策，做法，信仰或態(tài)度。Chapter 5 Verbal Intercultural CommunicationVerbal intercultural communication:來(lái)自不同文化北京的人用言語(yǔ)進(jìn)行的交際即言語(yǔ)跨文化交際。Dialect: 方言指某一群體特有的語(yǔ)言，與整個(gè)

9、群體的言語(yǔ)不同。Sociolect: 社會(huì)方言指由于社會(huì)階級(jí)或言語(yǔ)分割不同而產(chǎn)生的方言。Pidgin: 洋涇浜；是一種特殊的語(yǔ)言變體，指為貿(mào)易等目的將兩種或幾種語(yǔ)言混合使用。Creole: 當(dāng)有人以洋涇浜為母語(yǔ)， 并成為某一地區(qū)永久的語(yǔ)言時(shí)，它就成為克里奧爾語(yǔ)或混合語(yǔ)。Lingua franca: 通用語(yǔ)指作為國(guó)際間交流手段的一種特殊語(yǔ)言。Taboo: 禁忌語(yǔ)指被禁止或避免的具有毛反省的不禮貌行為。Euphemism: 委婉語(yǔ)是替代具有毛反省的不禮貌的禁忌語(yǔ)詞語(yǔ)。Jargon: 行話是指演變而來(lái)的專門的或科技詞匯，用以滿足特殊職業(yè)的特殊需要，例如醫(yī)藥或法律。Chapter 6 Nonverba

10、l Intercultural CommunicationNonverbal communication: 非言語(yǔ)交際：不運(yùn)用言語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言傳遞信息。Proxemics : 時(shí)空行為是指對(duì)空間關(guān)系的研究。Chronemics: 時(shí)間行為是對(duì)于人們?nèi)绾卫斫夂屠脮r(shí)間的研究。Paralanguage: 為增強(qiáng)其含義，伴隨言語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言產(chǎn)生的可聽(tīng)到的聲音符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。Olfactics: 氣味行為： 研究氣味對(duì)于交流的影響的學(xué)科Oculesics: 目光語(yǔ)： 對(duì)于有眼睛所傳達(dá)的信息的研究。不同的文化對(duì)于交際時(shí)眼神的接觸有不同的要求。Haptics: 觸覺(jué)行為：指通過(guò)身體接觸來(lái)交流。Chromatics: 色彩學(xué)：指

11、對(duì)于影響人們?nèi)酥?，行為和他人印象的色彩的研究。Kinesics: 身勢(shì)語(yǔ)：指手勢(shì)，面目表情，眼神交流，身體姿勢(shì)，肢體運(yùn)動(dòng)和問(wèn)候方式以及它們與交際的關(guān)系。Chapter 7 Cultural PatternsCultural patterns: 文化模式是指相對(duì)穩(wěn)定的共有的信仰，價(jià)值觀，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和社會(huì)實(shí)踐，這些文化模式在相似的情形下會(huì)使人產(chǎn)生相似的行為。Context: 語(yǔ)境是指事件發(fā)生時(shí)周圍的信息，對(duì)事件的解讀具有重要參考價(jià)值。High Context Communication: 高語(yǔ)境交際是指在交際過(guò)程中大部分的信息靠交際人本身傳遞，只有少量信息被明確地用語(yǔ)言的形式傳遞。Low Context

12、 Communication: 低語(yǔ)境交際是指大量的信息通過(guò)明確的語(yǔ)言編碼被傳遞的交際。Uncertainty Avoidance: 不確定性規(guī)避是指某一文化的成員對(duì)不確定性因素的規(guī)避程度。Power Distance: 權(quán)力距離是指機(jī)構(gòu)或組織中權(quán)利較小的成員對(duì)權(quán)力被不平等分配的接受程度。Chapter 8 Cultural Influences on ContextsCommunication context: 交際語(yǔ)境，交際無(wú)法脫離外部環(huán)境的影響， 所有的人類交接都或多或少受到社會(huì)，物理和文化場(chǎng)景的影響，這些場(chǎng)景成為交際語(yǔ)境。Chapter 9 Intercultural Adaptati

13、on1. Acculturation 文化適應(yīng)：指人們學(xué)習(xí)和適應(yīng)新文化的社會(huì)規(guī)范和價(jià)值觀念的過(guò)程。2. Assimilation 同化，指一個(gè)民族群體的人們逐漸失去自己原有的文化，接受新的主流文化的過(guò)程。3. Integration 文化融合：指人們?cè)谖幕m應(yīng)過(guò)程中高度接受新的主流文化，同時(shí)又保留了自己文化的完整性。4. Separation: 分離， 指人們?cè)谖幕覂?nèi)光影過(guò)程中對(duì)自己原有文化進(jìn)行重新肯定的認(rèn)同，保留了原有文化，對(duì)新的主流文化及與其相關(guān)的微觀文化不接受不認(rèn)可。5. Segregation: 隔離，當(dāng)境界和政治上更強(qiáng)大的新主流文化不接受人們與它進(jìn)行文化接觸， 人們就會(huì)被這種文化隔

14、離在外。6. Marginalization:邊緣化， 指人們不但失去自己原有的文化身份，而且無(wú)法融入新的主流文化。7. Culture shock: 文化沖擊/休克， 指人們?cè)谶M(jìn)入一種新文化環(huán)境中遭遇的痛苦和難忘的經(jīng)歷。8. Intercultural adaptation:跨文化適應(yīng)指人們不斷提高自己的適應(yīng)能力，以期達(dá)到新文化環(huán)境的需要。2. 判斷1.T The iceberg model of culture implies that it is very difficult to understand a culture thoroughly.2.F Culture is innate

15、 as soon as a person is born.3.T People may sometimes get confused about his or her cultural identity.4.F Scholars prefer the term subculture to co-culture in describing a culture which exists within a dominant culture.5.T A person could be a member of several different subgroups at the same time.6.

16、F Intercultural communication occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging messages are from different races.7.T Communication and culture are inseparable and strongly connected.8.F The sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message. This activity is calle

17、d decoding.9.T The process of communication has nine components:sender,encoding,message, channel, noise, receiver, decoding, feedback, and context.10.T No two of us can assume that our sensations are the same.Different stimuli can produce the same sensations.11.T The same stimuli can produce very di

18、fferent sensations.12.T Our perception are influenced by who we are, including the accumulation of our experience.13.F We give meaning to or “decode”the information that we have selected and organized during the selection stage.14.T The psychological filters refer to the psychological factors, inclu

19、ding the attitudes, beliefs, and dispositions of the individual.15.T Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and racism are learned.16.T Although stereotypes are considered as being negative judgments,they can also be positive.17.T When communicating with people from other cultures,an individual some

20、times is likely to treat them as”his people”and to assume there is only one way of doing things:that is”his way”.18.F Assumption of superiority may lead to assuming similarity instead of difference.19.F Industrialization is not the reason for the persistence of ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudice a

21、nd racism.20.F An exacting style of communication can be found in Japan,China,and some Native American cultures.21.F The self-effacement verbal style emphasizes the importance of boasting about ones accomplishments and abilities.22.T The elaborate,exacting,or succinct communication style deals with

22、the quantity and/or volume of talk that is preferred across cultural groups.23.T Dialect refers to geographic variation,while sociolect refers to variation in terms of social group.24.T An elaborate style of communication can be seen in Arab cultures.25.F Speaking is the only mode of effective commu

23、nication.26.F Chinese like to touch babies or small children,especially they like others to pat their childrens head.27.T Saudi Arabs belong to touch cultures.28.T The appropriateness of eye contact varies with different cultures.29.T Paralanguage may imply the connotation of the actual words.30.T I

24、ndustrialized societies like the United States,the masteruy-over-nature view tends to predominate.31.F The harmony-with-nature orientation draws chear distinctions among human life,nature,and the supernatural.32.F Both Americans and British show respect for tradition.33.T A doing orientation involve

25、s a focus on those types of activities which have outcomes that can be measured by someone else.34.T In Being cultures,social status and position are more important than what a person does.35.F In Saudi Arabia,greetings tend to be informal. Both men and women shake hands on meeting and leaving.36.T

26、In Finland,firm handshakes are the normal greeting for men and women.37.T Americans might regard gift giving as a form of bribery.38.F In Japan,one should open the gift in front of the giver.39.T Mexican negotiators emphasize relational concerns prior to the real negotiation.40.F Similarity of cultu

27、re does not affect acculturation.41.T Successful management of culture shock depends on an awareness of its symptoms and the degree of its severity.42.F Similarity of culture does not affect acculturation.43.T Successful management of culture shock depends on an awareness of its symptoms and the deg

28、ree of its severity.44.F The second stage of intercultural adaptation is called honeymoon stage or initial euphoria stage.45.F All the activities of learning ones culture are called acculturation.46.F Insomnia can be one example of the physical symptoms of culture shock.47.T Financial matters can re

29、sult in culture shock.3. 簡(jiǎn)答1. Emotional problems as barriers to intercultural communication?a. Anxiety and uncertaintyb. Assuming similarity instead of difference2. Attitudinal problems as barriers to intercultural communication?a. Ethnocentrismb. Stereotypingc. Prejudiced. Racism3.Five dimensions o

30、f stereotypes?a. Direction b. intensity c. specificity d. consensus e. accuracy4.Reasons for the persistence of ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudice and racism？a. Socialization b. social benefits c. economic benefits d. psychological benefits5.Translation problems as language barriers?a. Lack of voc

31、abulary equivalenceb. Lack of idiomatic equivalencec. Lack of grammatical-syntactical equivalenced. Lack of experiential equivalencee. Lack of conceptual equivalence6.Verbal communication styles?a. Direct and indirect stylesb. Self-enhancement and self-effacement stylesc. Elaborate,exacting and succ

32、inct stylesd. Personal and contextual stylese. Instrumental and affective styles7.Language diversity?a. Dialects and sociolects b. pidgin and lingua franca c. taboo and euphemism d. jargon 8.Functions of nonverbal communication?a. Repeating b. complementing c. substituting d. regulating e. contradic

33、ting9.Edward T.Halls contextculture theory?a. High-context culture b. low-context culture10. Hofstedes dimensions of cultural variability?a. individualism and collectivism b. uncertainty avoidance c. power distance d. masculinity and femininity11.Business etiquette norms?a. appointment seeking b. th

34、e data for business c. greeting behavior d. gift giving12.Forms of culture shock?a. language shock b. role shock c. transition shock d. culture fatigue e. education shock f. adjustment stress g. culture distance13.Stages of intercultural adaptation?a. U-curve pattern(a)honeymood period (b)crisis per

35、iod (c)adjustment period (d)biculturalism periodb. W-curve pattern4. 案例 Case 34 What Is Sues Problem?This case can reflect nonverbal intercultural communication should be according to the different context, too. Context refers to the actual setting when communication occurs and is also important in

36、nonverbal communication. In this case, Sue knew how to wai and she knew that bowing was generally important in the Thai culture, but, as is so easy to do in a new environment, she forgot to consider the context. Relational hierarchy is very important in Thailand. Sues differential actions may have a

37、ppropriate in certain settings, but given her status of elder visitor such actions directed toward the children were extremely confusing and uncomfortable for the students and teachers alike.這個(gè)案例反映出非言語(yǔ)的跨文化交際也應(yīng)該根據(jù)不同的語(yǔ)境。語(yǔ)境指的是當(dāng)交流發(fā)生時(shí)的現(xiàn)場(chǎng)環(huán)境。它在非言語(yǔ)的交流當(dāng)中很重要。在這個(gè)案例中，Sue 知道如何去wai 并且她知道鞠躬在泰國(guó)文化中通常是很重要的。但她在一個(gè)新環(huán)境中輕

38、易就鞠躬，她忘了考慮語(yǔ)境。等級(jí)關(guān)系在泰國(guó)也很重要。Sue不同的舉動(dòng)可能在一些環(huán)境當(dāng)中是合適的。但是作為一個(gè)參觀者，她向比她年齡小的孩子做這樣的動(dòng)作是十分讓人學(xué)生們和老師們困惑和不舒服的。Case35 A QuarrelThis case can reflect the different use and understanding of silence can influence the actual intercultural communication. Different culture might have different interpretations to the silenc

39、e. The Eastern culture usually attaches more meanings to silence, while the most western cultures consider silence to be absence of communication and most rude communicative behavior. In this case, Li Hua wanted to provide the opportunity for them to calm down and think about the matters carefully a

40、nd so she kept silence, while this silence was misunderstood by Smith as the absence of communication and he might think Li Hua looked down upon him and became angrier.此案例反映出對(duì)沉默的不同使用和理解能夠影響現(xiàn)實(shí)的跨文化交際。不同的文化對(duì)沉默有著不同的解讀。東方文化通常賦予沉默更多的意義，而西方文化通常認(rèn)為沉默是交流的缺失，是非常魯莽的交際行為。在此案例中，李華想要提供一個(gè)機(jī)會(huì)讓他們冷靜一下，仔細(xì)考慮一下事件，因此，她保持沉默

41、。然而這種沉默被Smith誤解為交流的缺失。他可能認(rèn)為李華看不起他，所以他變得更加憤怒。Case 42 Wrong Signal?Ning Tong was not observing the house rules for watching TV, which was probably why he eventually stopped saying anything in the argument. Usually, when a Chinese chooses not to say any more things in an argument, it would mean one or

42、both of the following: the person feels that he/she is wrong; the person wants to stop the argument by not talking any more. The latter would often mean tolerance as one has to resist the impulse of reasoning with the other, especially when one feels he/she is right. When Ning Tong became quite, he

43、was hoping that his silence could stop Tom since Tom would not have anything to respond to.Tom was clearly frustrated at not being able to relax and enjoy some programs connected with what is happening back home. Tom probably thought Ning Tongs decision to stop arguing was “passive aggression”-makin

44、g the other person look bad by pretending to be mild-mannered or even not interested-yet not yielding in an argument.錯(cuò)誤的信號(hào)？寧童沒(méi)有觀察房子里看電視的規(guī)則，這就是為什么他最后在爭(zhēng)辯中停止說(shuō)話。通常來(lái)說(shuō)，一個(gè)中國(guó)人在辯論當(dāng)中選擇不再說(shuō)話，這可能有如下的理解：這個(gè)人覺(jué)得自己說(shuō)的是錯(cuò)的；這個(gè)人想通過(guò)不說(shuō)話來(lái)停止?fàn)幷摗５诙右馑伎赡芤馕吨棠彤?dāng)一個(gè)人不得不抵抗和另一個(gè)人理論的沖力，尤其當(dāng)一個(gè)人感覺(jué)他/她是對(duì)的時(shí)候。當(dāng)寧童沉默時(shí)，他希望他的沉默可以讓Tom停下來(lái)因?yàn)門om將沒(méi)有什么話

45、可以回應(yīng)。Tom感到非常尷尬當(dāng)他不能放松并且欣賞節(jié)目。Tom可能認(rèn)為寧童決定停止?fàn)幷撌窍麡O進(jìn)攻-這能使另一個(gè)人看起來(lái)很壞通過(guò)假裝態(tài)度溫和或甚至是不感興趣-但卻又不能在爭(zhēng)論中發(fā)飆。Case 44 When Shall We Meet For Dinner?Uncertainty avoidance orientation can be seen in this case. In the dialogue presented below, Kelly and Keiko are interacting about a dinner invitation. Kelly, from the Unite

46、d States, possesses a relatively low uncertainty avoidance index, while Keiko, from Japan, comes from a culture with a relatively high uncertainty avoidance index.In the dialogue above, Keiko is confused by Kellys easygoing attitude toward the evenings plans. Coming from a high uncertainty-avoidant

47、culture, Keiko would prefer to plan ahead to avoid uncertainty and prepare her script for the evening. Kelly, on the other hand, is a perfectly comfortable making plans based on how the evening progresses. Without a plan, how will Kekio know how to act?不確定性規(guī)避情況能在此案例中看見(jiàn)。在對(duì)話中， Kelly 和 Kekio在討論晚餐邀請(qǐng)。Kel

48、ly，來(lái)自美國(guó)，有著一個(gè)相對(duì)較低的不確定性避免指數(shù)，而Kekio，來(lái)自日本，來(lái)自一個(gè)有著相對(duì)較高避免不確定性行指數(shù)的文化中。在下面的對(duì)話中，Kekio被Kelly隨意的制定晚餐的態(tài)度所迷惑。來(lái)自與一個(gè)有著較高避免不確定性的文化，Kekio更喜歡提前制定好計(jì)劃以避免不確定因素，并且為晚上的事寫(xiě)出手稿。而Kelly，更喜歡根據(jù)晚上事情的進(jìn)程來(lái)制定計(jì)劃。沒(méi)有一個(gè)確定的計(jì)劃，Kekio怎么知道該怎么辦呢？A Danish Woman in New YorkThe case can reflect assuming similarity instead of difference. When commu

49、nicating with people from another culture, one is likely to regard and treat other people as “his way”. In this case, the Danish woman assumes that her behavior of leaving the baby alone, which is common in Denmark, is also appropriate in New York. Here, she assumes what is suitable in her own cultu

50、re is also indisputable in another culture. That is why the small conflict happens.丹麥婦女在紐約這則案例反應(yīng)了假定一致性, 當(dāng)同來(lái)自于其他文化的人交流的時(shí)候，會(huì)認(rèn)為他人和自己相似， 并會(huì)以自己的方式對(duì)待他人。 在這則案例中，在丹麥把孩子獨(dú)自留在家中是很普遍的，因此丹麥婦女認(rèn)為在紐約也是這樣。 這里，她假設(shè)自己文化中適宜的事情在另一個(gè)文化中也是無(wú)可爭(zhēng)辯的， 這就是為什么發(fā)生了這個(gè)小沖突。Ambiguous TimeThis case can reflect ethnocentrism. Cultures trai

51、n their members to use the categories of their own cultural experiences when judging the experiences of people from other cultures. They will believe that their culture is the center of the world and their standard should be the role model for the rest of the world. Concerning this case, somehow Chi

52、nese people have habitually referred 12:00 a.m. as the time around lunchtime, making 12:00p.m. midnight. Fortunately, the way they tell other times are the same as that used in the States, so theres usually no misunderstanding between people from the two cultures. However, there is this one differen

53、ce and Fan learns it by paying a fine since she may hold that her culture is the center of the world.模糊時(shí)間這則案例反應(yīng)的是民族優(yōu)越感。 當(dāng)判斷其他民族文化時(shí)，從自己的文化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)出發(fā)來(lái)判斷。他們認(rèn)為他們的文化是世界的中心文化，他們的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)應(yīng)該是其他標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的典范。 在這個(gè)案例中，中國(guó)人習(xí)慣將上午十二點(diǎn)作為午飯時(shí)間，將午夜十二點(diǎn)作為午夜。 幸運(yùn)的是，他們和別人說(shuō)時(shí)間的時(shí)候和美國(guó)是一樣的， 因此在這個(gè)方面通常沒(méi)有誤解。 然而，有一個(gè)差別，fan在交罰金的時(shí)候感覺(jué)到她的文化就是世界的中心。Girl-ness

54、This case can reflect one of the translation problems: the lack of conceptual equivalence, which refers to abstract ideas that may not exist in the same fashion in different languages. Different cultures may attach different meanings to the same thing or person. Concerning this case, we should know

55、what young females call themselves is very different in China from the States. In China, “girl” means someone who is young and single. In a way, it makes a female sound more desirable to be called a girl rather than a woman. For most people, “woman” means someone who is married and who probably is n

56、ot young. In fact, most single Chinese females, such as university students, would be insulted to be called “women”. While in the West, in formal, public settings, it is customary to call any woman who is past puberty a woman, even though she may not be legally old enough to vote, marry, purchase al

57、coholic beverages, drive a car, or sign a contract. This terminology became widespread during the “womens liberation movement in the 1960s”. The term “girl” is sometimes interpreted to be demeaning or disrespectful.女生這個(gè)案例反映了翻譯的問(wèn)題：由于沒(méi)有概念的對(duì)等，就是抽象的想法在不同的語(yǔ)言里沒(méi)有對(duì)應(yīng)的詞。對(duì)于相同的事情或人在不同的文化間有不同的意義。 在這個(gè)例子中，我們應(yīng)該知道在中

58、國(guó)和美國(guó)的稱呼是不同的。 在中國(guó)，“girl”指的是年輕單身的女人。這樣，女士們就比較喜歡被叫女孩兒而不是女人。 對(duì)于大多數(shù)人來(lái)說(shuō)，女人知道是那些已經(jīng)結(jié)婚，不在年輕的人。事實(shí)上，大多數(shù)的中國(guó)單身女性，比如說(shuō)大學(xué)生，都因?yàn)楸唤凶雠硕邜u。 而在西方， 在正式，公共的場(chǎng)合，對(duì)于過(guò)了青春期的女性都會(huì)叫成女人， 即使她還沒(méi)有夠年齡去選舉， 結(jié)婚，買酒，開(kāi)車或簽合同。 這個(gè)術(shù)語(yǔ)在“60年代婦女解放運(yùn)動(dòng)”中廣泛流傳， 而“girl”這個(gè)詞則被翻譯為一種降低身份，不尊重人的稱呼。Case 28 Two Different Communication StylesThe dialogue takes place between a young couple who have been dating for a short time. The man is a U.S. student, and the woman is from an Asian culture. Note the misunderstanding that results as a consequence of the use of d