研究生論文手冊-西安外國語大學(xué)研究生院

1、碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文是研究生本人在其導(dǎo)師指導(dǎo)下進行學(xué)術(shù)研究所取得的成果， 是決定攻讀碩士學(xué)位的研究生能否獲得碩士學(xué)位的重要依據(jù)，是對研究生在校學(xué)習(xí)專 業(yè)水平、研究能力以及綜合素質(zhì)的檢閱，代表著學(xué)校的研究生教育水平。西安外國語大學(xué)碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文歸檔一式五份，其中兩份永久存放在研究生 部資料室，一份存放在本校圖書館，供全校師生查閱；一份作為研究生學(xué)籍檔案永久 存放在學(xué)校檔案室，一份交中國國家圖書館，對全國各界讀者開放。本手冊應(yīng)與各學(xué)科所常用的學(xué)術(shù)論文寫作與出版規(guī)則一起使用。第一章關(guān)鍵詞定義碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文在選題、調(diào)研、寫作及答辯過程中，涉及到的一些詞匯具有 特定含義。論文答辯資格考核西安外國語

2、大學(xué)論文答辯資格考核的目的是檢測研究生是否具備碩士畢業(yè)論文 寫作與答辯的能力?？己朔致犃?、口語、寫作三個部分。聽力主要檢測研究生是否掌 握語速較快、內(nèi)容較復(fù)雜、篇幅較長的外語語篇的聽抄、編譯技能；口語主要檢測研 究生是否能夠針對自己所學(xué)專業(yè)的具體學(xué)術(shù)問題發(fā)表自己的觀點并展開討論；寫作主 要檢測研究生是否具有學(xué)術(shù)論文寫作所必備的外語書面表達能力。論文答辯資格考核 一般在二年級第二學(xué)期進行，考核未能通過者不得申請論文答辯。開題報告開題報告是研究生對碩士論文的選題立項所做的前期可行性報告，內(nèi)容包括：研 究課題陳述、課題的理論基礎(chǔ)、研究目的、可能得出的結(jié)論、文獻綜述、研究方法、 論文框架等。開題報告由

3、各學(xué)科、專業(yè)研究生教研室組織，研究生本人邀請開題報告審閱人（包 括導(dǎo)師在內(nèi)的三位具有副教授以上職稱的本學(xué)科專家），采取公開的陳述答辯形式進行。選題獲得專家認可后，研究生必須填寫開題報告審閱表，開題報告審閱人簽署意 見，報經(jīng)相關(guān)專業(yè)教研室審查同意后，交研究生部簽字，方可撰寫論文。開題報告工作一般在研究生三年級第一學(xué)期進行，陳述答辯式報告須在九月底以 前進行，整個審議過程在十月十日前結(jié)束。開題報告審閱人開題報告審閱人是受研究生本人之邀、具有副教授以上職稱的本學(xué)科方向?qū)＜遥?其職責(zé)是審査研究生擬定選題是否新穎、可行、有意義，并填寫審查意見。審查意見 作為各專業(yè)教研室是否同意研究生撰寫論文的重要依據(jù)。

4、論文評閱人論文評閱人是研究生部或各碩士學(xué)位授權(quán)學(xué)科、專業(yè)研究生教研室聘請的具有副 教授以上職稱的碩士論文評審專家。其職責(zé)是評價碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文的質(zhì)量及學(xué)術(shù) 價值，并寫出審閱意見，為論文答辯委員會提供評價依據(jù)。論文答辯委員會論文答辯委員會由三位論文評閱人組成，一位答辯委員會主任，兩位委員。其 職責(zé)是主持論文答辯，聽取答辯人的論文要旨陳述，提出相關(guān)問題以檢測答辯人對課 題的研究水平，對論文及答辯情況作總體評價，并以無記名投票方式確定論文答辯結(jié) 果，向校學(xué)位評定委員會提出是否授予答辯人碩士學(xué)位的建議。第二章 碩士學(xué)位論文寫作的基本步驟碩士研究生通過論文答辯資格考核后，即可著手選題、調(diào)研、為撰寫論文

5、做各 項準備工作。在寫作過程中，研究生必須制定切實可行的計劃，在規(guī)定時間內(nèi)完成每 個階段的任務(wù)。選題碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文選題須符合以下條件：1）選題屬于所學(xué)專業(yè)的研究范疇;2）選題應(yīng)該新穎具體，有針對性；3）選題應(yīng)該有一定的理論意義和學(xué)術(shù)價值。文獻調(diào)研確定選題后，研究生可根據(jù)課題研究的需要進行調(diào)研活動。除利用學(xué)校圖書館、 各院、系、部專業(yè)資料室以及網(wǎng)絡(luò)資料外，研究生還可利用假期，赴國內(nèi)其他城市的 院校圖書館進行調(diào)研，盡可能搜集、整理相關(guān)資料，以便全面了解和把握本領(lǐng)域的學(xué) 術(shù)動態(tài)和研究狀況。文獻資料是撰寫論文的重要參考依據(jù)。因此，研究生在搜集每一份資料時，應(yīng)正 確記錄其作者姓名（全名）、書名或文章

6、名（從書籍的標題頁、文章的開頭摘錄，不 要從書籍的封面或期刊、文集的頁眉摘錄）；文章所摘自的書名或雜志名及刊號、出 版地（城市名）、出版社（全名）、出版時間，以便準確掌握信息，正確編寫引用文獻。 開題調(diào)研活動結(jié)束后，研究生在著手論文寫作之前，必須按要求進行開題報告，完 善寫作思路，制定明晰的寫作計劃，填寫開題報告審閱表，交各學(xué)科研究生教研室與 研究生部。獲得開題許可后，研究生便可深入細致地撰寫論文。寫作對大部分研究生來說，碩士論文寫作是在學(xué)期間難度最大、要求最高的寫作任 務(wù)。因此，充分的準備過程是十分必要的，以下步驟可供參考：1）全面消化所收集資料，整理調(diào)研成果，深化本題研究。2）梳理寫作思路

7、，與導(dǎo)師交流溝通，確定寫作提綱。3）根據(jù)提綱，緊扣主題，宏觀把握，按章節(jié)拓展觀點。4）熟悉碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文的格式要求，以避免寫完后再做格式轉(zhuǎn)換。寫作過程因人而異，研究生應(yīng)該根據(jù)自己的寫作習(xí)慣工作。但應(yīng)該注意，在撰寫 初稿時，首先要著重表達自己的觀點，不要過多地依賴外來資料；在修改補充的過程 中，充分利用資料，拓展自己的觀點，充實論文內(nèi)容。同時要注意對自己研究成果的 語言表達的準確性，反復(fù)審視論文的結(jié)構(gòu)是否符合邏輯、內(nèi)容有無欠缺、各章節(jié)的側(cè) 重點是否明確、各部分比例是否合理等。特別強調(diào)的是，碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文必須語句通順、用詞恰當、條理清楚，務(wù)必消除語法、行文格式、打印等方面的錯誤。交稿論文的

8、定稿（必須是裝訂成冊的終稿，而不是征求意見稿，論文必須統(tǒng)一使用西 安外國語大學(xué)規(guī)定的封皮，按要求規(guī)格裝訂）必須在規(guī)定期限內(nèi)上交研究生部，不得 拖延。否則，當年的論文評審和答辯將不予受理，次年按延期答辯處理。第三章碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文的組成部分西安外國語大學(xué)碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文由正文前附頁、正文、正文后附頁三部分組 成0一、正文前附頁正文前附頁包括8個部分，依次為1）標題頁；2）審核簽字頁；3）獨創(chuàng)性聲明頁； 4）知識產(chǎn)權(quán)保護頁；5）鳴謝頁；6）外語摘要頁；7）漢語摘要頁；8）目錄。1）標題頁。該頁包括論文題目、作者姓名、校名、學(xué)位、專業(yè)、學(xué)校所在的城 市及國家、畢業(yè)年月。以上所有內(nèi)容必須居中，除題

9、目用粗體字以外，其他各項不用 粗體。題目用14號字，其他均用12號字；字體為times new roman o標題頁格式必須完全依照第10頁范式；內(nèi)容除標題、姓名、專業(yè)、畢業(yè)時間外, 必須與第10頁范式完全一致。2）審核簽字頁。該頁使用學(xué)校規(guī)定措絆，研究生只需替換專業(yè)名稱、導(dǎo)師姓名， 答辯委員會主任姓名，以及研究生部主任姓名即可（見第11頁）。該頁頁碼為小寫羅 馬數(shù)字ii,標在右下角。3）獨創(chuàng)性聲明頁。該頁使用漢語，由學(xué)校規(guī)定措鋅，研究生只需添加有關(guān)內(nèi)容和 填寫姓名即可（見第12頁）。該頁頁碼為小寫羅馬數(shù)字iii,標在右下角。4）知識產(chǎn)權(quán)聲明頁。該頁使用漢語，由學(xué)校規(guī)定措辭，研究生只需添加有關(guān)

10、內(nèi)容 和填寫姓名即可（見第13頁）。該頁頁碼為小寫羅馬數(shù)字iii,標在右下角5）鳴謝頁。研究生在該頁感謝對自己學(xué)習(xí)與論文提供過幫助的人，但不應(yīng)超過三 分之二頁（見第14頁）。該頁頁碼為小寫羅馬數(shù)字v,標在右下角。6）外語摘要頁。摘要是研究生對自己論文的簡要概述，應(yīng)包括研究的課題、目的、 方法、結(jié)果、結(jié)論等。語言要簡明扼要，高度概括，不得超過一頁。摘要頁只需冠以“摘要” 一詞的外語對應(yīng)詞，不要重復(fù)論文題目（見第15頁）。該頁頁碼為小寫羅馬 數(shù)字vi,標在右下角。7）漢語摘要頁。該頁內(nèi)容應(yīng)與外語摘要頁相同。該頁頁碼為小寫羅馬數(shù)字vii,標 在右下角。8）目錄頁。論文目錄可以長于一頁，必須列出論文各

11、章、節(jié)的標題、引用文獻及 附件。章節(jié)標題、引用文獻、附件必須與其在論文中岀現(xiàn)的形式（拼寫、用詞、標點 符號、大小寫）完全一致，但文中小標題為區(qū)分層次而加的斜體、粗體與下劃線不要 在目錄中出現(xiàn)。目錄中的頁碼必須右對齊（見第15頁）。目錄頁碼從小寫羅馬數(shù)字viii開始，標在右下角。如果論文中有三個或三個以上的圖表，必須在目錄后另起一頁，加圖表目錄。圖 表目錄中的標題必須與其在論文中出現(xiàn)的形式完全一致。二、正文碩士論文正文的格式將在第四章提出三、正文后附頁正文后附頁由三部分組成：1）尾注；2）引用文獻；3）附件。1）尾注。尾注必須另起一頁，緊隨正文之后。它是文中注釋與引用文獻頁的補 充，其內(nèi)容可以是

12、作者對論文中某一點所作的解釋說明或正文無法容納的其它相關(guān)信 息，也可以是對某一引用文獻的評介或因格式要求而無法加入引用文獻頁中的出版信 息。西安外國語大學(xué)要求研究生在學(xué)位論文正文中需要注釋處加上標，全文連續(xù)編 號，尾注部分各條注釋的標號必須與文中所加上標完全一致。尾注部分的標題所有字母大寫，并居中，英語學(xué)科研究生使用notes,不用endnotes o2）引用文獻（works cited）。西安外國語大學(xué)研究生部要求，碩士論文中所 采用的每一條直接或間接引文都必須在文末列出。與參考文獻不同，引用文獻不列舉 在調(diào)研與寫作中參考而未引用的文獻資料。英語專業(yè)研究生必須依照美國現(xiàn)代語言協(xié)會（mla）規(guī)

13、定的格式編寫引用文獻。 請參照 mla handbook for research paper writers 第四、五章。3）附件（appendix）o附件是研究生因種種原因而沒有插入論文正文的材料，可 以是表格、插圖、照片、數(shù)據(jù)、問卷樣本等。第四章碩士學(xué)位論文的格式碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文正文長度不得少于50頁，終稿紙型為a4,頁面設(shè)置與正文 必須按照以下格式。1. 頁邊距研究生畢業(yè)論文在左邊裝訂，要求正文前附頁（除標題頁外）、正文、正文后附 頁全部按照以下要求設(shè)置頁邊距：左邊距：3.5cm右邊距：2.75cm上邊距：2.75cm下邊距：2.75cm正文前附頁（除標題頁外）內(nèi)容如果不到半頁，可適

14、當加大上邊距，左右邊距不 變，以達到空間分配合理、頁面美觀之效果。標題頁按照以下要求設(shè)置頁邊距：上邊距：5.0cm下邊距：5.0cm右邊距：不小于4.0cm左邊距：不小于5.0cm2. 頁碼碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文頁碼編寫必須符合以下要求：1頁碼標在右下角。2除標題頁外，每一頁都必須標有頁碼。3正文前附頁頁碼使用小寫羅馬字母。4標題頁頁碼不標出，但必須計算在內(nèi)。5評語頁頁碼為ii,正文前其它附頁頁碼以此類推。6正文及正文后附頁頁碼使用阿拉伯數(shù)字。7 正文及正文后附頁頁碼連續(xù)，由正文第一頁開始。3. 字號與字體：碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文除標題頁論文標題、各章標題用14號字以外，其他內(nèi)容均 用12號字，字體用

15、times new roman.4. 行距與空格碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文的正文前附頁（除標題頁外）、正文、正文后附頁全部采用 1.5倍行距，段落之間行距不增大。每段第一行縮進5個字符（按計算機鍵盤左上角tab 次）。4行或4行以上引文 每一行左邊縮進10個字符。章節(jié)標題上空一行，下不空行。5. 標題碩士研究生畢業(yè)論文各章一般分為若干節(jié)，每節(jié)又可能分為若干小節(jié)，每章、節(jié)、 小節(jié)一般都有標題。無論是在正文中還是在目錄中，各章標題全部大寫。節(jié)與小節(jié)的 標題，不同學(xué)科學(xué)術(shù)論文規(guī)則不同，研究生可參照以下格式：各章標題：距中、所有字母大寫、無下劃線第一層分節(jié)標題：居中、首字母大寫、無下劃線第二層分節(jié)標題：居中、

16、首字母大寫、無下劃線第三層分節(jié)標題：左對齊、首字母大寫、無下劃線第四層分節(jié)標題：縮進（同段落首行）、第一個詞首字母大寫、下劃線、以句號 結(jié)束，在句號后空兩個字符開始段落，不另起一行。6. 引語英語學(xué)科研究生學(xué)位論文引語格式采用美國現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)會（mla）所規(guī)定的格式。 其他語種研究生學(xué)位論文引語采用各語種普遍接受的格式。無明確規(guī)定者，采用以下 方法：少于三行的引語，放在引號內(nèi)，插入段落中；四行或四行以上的引語，采用縮 進式，即每行左邊縮進十個空格，左右對齊，行距不變，不用引號。7. 注釋注釋因其內(nèi)容與出現(xiàn)位置不同，分為腳注（footnotes）尾注（endnotes）與文中 注釋(in-text

17、 notes/ parenthetical notes)三種。研究生畢業(yè)論文采用文中注釋與尾注兩 種方法，不用腳注。英語學(xué)科畢業(yè)論文文中注釋與尾注采用美國現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)會(mla)所規(guī)定的格式, 其他語種研究生學(xué)位論文注釋采用各語種普遍接受的格式。8. 縮寫、縮略語與符號除特別常見者以外，一個詞/詞組如需用縮寫、縮略語或符號表示，第一次使用時 必須同時拼寫出其完整形式，如：modern language association of america (mla)或 mla (modern language association of america)。9. 其它英語學(xué)科研究生畢業(yè)論文中外語詞/詞組

18、、數(shù)字、拼寫、標點符號、大小寫字 母的使用參照mla handbook for writers of research papers,其他語種研究生參照各 語種普遍接受的格式。正文第一頁摘要頁、目錄、第五章正文及附頁范例、標題頁、審核簽字頁、獨創(chuàng)性聲明頁、知識產(chǎn)權(quán)聲明頁、鳴謝頁、 注釋頁、參考文的范例從下頁起。tenement reform in new york city:legislating social changes in 20th centurybyhao wenzhanga thesissubmitted to the graduate schoolof xi'an in

19、ternational studies universityin partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofmaster of artsinamerican studiesxi'an, china2003該論文達到專業(yè)碩士學(xué)位論文水平。導(dǎo)師:答辯主席:originality research statementin light of the university academic morals and ethics, i hereby declare that this thesis represents the

20、original research effort that i have made on the advice of my academic superviso匚 to the best of my knowledge, no portion of this thesis has been copyrighted previously unless properly referenced, and whoever has contributed to this study is explicitly identified and appreciated in the acknowledgeme

21、nts section of this thesis- if there is a breach of the copyright law, i indemnify xi'an international studies university and hold it harmless for any legal actions that might arise.signaturedate秉承學(xué)校嚴謹?shù)膶W(xué)風(fēng)與優(yōu)良的科學(xué)道德，我聲明所呈交的論文是我本人在導(dǎo)師指 導(dǎo)下進行的研究工作所取得的成果。盡我所知，除了文中特別加以標注和致謝的地方 外，論文中不包含其他人已經(jīng)發(fā)表或撰寫的研究成果，不包含

22、本人或他人已申請學(xué)位 或其他用途使用過的成果。他人對本研究所做的任何貢獻均已在論文中作了明確的說 明并表示了致謝。申請學(xué)位論文與資料若有不實之處，本人承擔(dān)一切相關(guān)責(zé)任。作者簽名：intellectual property statementi hereby declare that i fully understand the rules and regulations of xian international studies university on intellectual property rights, stipulating that the intellectual prope

23、rty of the graduate student's ma degree thesis shall reside exclusively with the university. i pledge that xi'an international studies university will be represented as ever if this thesis is entirely or partially published in the forthcoming five years as of the date of my graduation the un

24、iversity is granted the right to keep the photocopy and disk file of this thesis for reference and boitowing, publish the thesis wholly or partially and store it in any form by any means, including photocopying or photomechanical printing in original or reduced format.signaturedate本人完全了解西安外國語大學(xué)有關(guān)知識產(chǎn)

25、權(quán)的規(guī)定，即：研究生在校攻讀碩士學(xué) 位期間論文工作的知識產(chǎn)權(quán)單位屬西安外國語大學(xué)。本人保證畢業(yè)離校后5年以內(nèi) （自辦理離校手續(xù)之日起），發(fā)表論文或使用論文工作成果時署名單位仍然為西安外 國語大學(xué)。學(xué)校有權(quán)保留送交論文的復(fù)印件和磁盤文件，允許論文被查閱和借閱；學(xué) 校可以公布論文的全部或部分內(nèi)容，可以采用影印、縮印或其他復(fù)制手段保存論文。作者簽名:acknowledgementsi am grateful to my committee, drs. thomas frantzius, barbara child, and john glover, for their assistance and

26、encouragement throughout the thesis-writing process. de smith kearney of bowling green state university's statistics laboratory was instrumental in helping to analyze my data. jim pearson of the toledo zoo and timothy cooper of the indianapolis zoo deserve thanks for their assistance in research

27、ing the territorial behaviors of prairie dogs and wolves, respectively.i could never, never have completed this project without the love and encouragement of my family. thank you with all my heart, mom, dad, and bill. thanks also go out to my friends dan macintyre and anna cho, who kept me sane thro

28、ugh the whole process, and to all the gang in the biological sciences lab. you know who you are!this study was funded in part by a grant from the national science foundation (# 123-45-67890)，which permitted me to travel to seal colonies on two continents. the center for world mammal studies in tampa

29、, florida provided me with a ten-year report of the migratory patterns of the two colonies used in this study: my gratitude goes out to them as well.abstractthe purpose of this study was to research the effects on the tenement law of 1901一the "new law" n the equality of life for the reside

30、nts of tenements in new york city. the study contrasts this new law with the tenement law of 1869, or “old law： the works of jacob riis and ernest flagg, in addition to several prominent charity organizations, are examined as well. articles written at the time, photographs of tenements, and immigran

31、t stories are all examined. i conclude that there were significant changes in the equality of life as a result of a new idea of human life and its value.the information uncovered indicates that the changes were indeed far-reaching, past the tenements and into the lives of all new yorkers, and that t

32、he reason so much changed was not just a renewed sense of humanity, but a change in the outlook of citizen in general.contentsintroduction 1chapter i. rhetorical situation 8the speaker 12the exigency 20the audience 23chapter ii. an overview of the speeches 36purposes of the speeches 36description of

33、 the speeches 37chapter iii. style 42diction 43embellishment 45chapter iv. ethical proof 49situated ethical proof 50ethical proof of moral character 52ethical proof of intelligence 57ethical proof of good will 59chapter v. pathetic proof 63enargeia 63honorific language 67chapter vi. logical proof 69

34、enthymemes 69examples 72conclusion 76works cited 82appendix 1 85appendix 2 88appendix 3 93chapter iintroduction1>1 introductiontranslation of any sort, as a kind of language operation, does not take place in vacuum. the context serves as the link between the abstract language and the changeable m

35、eaning. however, it is widely accepted that the translation in bilingual dictionaries lacks adequate context. the author made the hypothesis that the central issue of the english-chinese translational bilingual dictionaries is to offer the most correct and appropriate translational equivalents based

36、 on the correct understanding of the possible contexts in which the lexical items occur. by the english-chinese translational bilingual dictionary, the author means english dictionary with translational equivalents in chinese. the difference between this type of dictionary and the ordinary bilingual

37、 dictionary is that it is intended not only to help the users with their comprehension of the english language but also to find the most correct and appropriate equivalents for them in their translating practice.1.2 the function of translationa bilingual dictionary normally involves two types of equ

38、ivalents, namely, translational or insertible equivalent and explanatory equivalent or descriptive equivalent. the former refers to those equivalents that can be directly chosen as a part of a cohesive and coherent text. while, the latter is a kind of information of the original lexical item. “the m

39、ain distinction (between them) is that when choosing a translational or insertible equivalent, the main concern is given to its ability to be used in a fluent, good translation of whole sentences, to be inserted into contexts of the ranslation of any sort, as a kind of language operation, does not t

40、ake place in vacuum. the context serves as the link between the abstract language and the changeable meaning. however, it is widely accepted that the translation in bilingual dictionaries lacks adequate context. the author made the hypothesis that the central issue of the english-chinese translation

41、al bilingual dictionaries is to offer the most correct and appropriate translational equivalents based on the correct understanding of the possible contexts in which the lexical items occu匚 by the english-chinese translational bilingual dictionary, the author means english dictionary with translatio

42、nal equivalents in chinese. the difference between this type of dictionary and the ordinary bilingual dictionary is that it is intended not only to help the users with their comprehension of the english language but also to find the most correct and appropriate equivalents for them in their translat

43、ing practice.3.2 translating practice.a bilingual dictionary normally involves two types of equivalents, namely, translational or insertible equivalent and explanatory equivalent or descriptive equivalent. the former refers to those equivalents that can be directly chosen as a part of a cohesive and

44、 coherent text, while the latter is a kind of information of the original lexical item. "the main distinction (between them) is that when choosing a translational or insertible equivalent, the main concern is given to its ability to be used in a fluent, good translation of whole sentences, to b

45、e inserted into contexts of the target language whereas the explanatory or descriptive equivalent is chosen in order to give more information about the lexical unit of the source language (zgusta, 319). it is the duty of dictionary makers to build up typical contexts through different linguistic mea

46、ns, such as, collocations, typical sentences as well as bracketed notes. the methods for providing translational equivalents include the provision of possible choices of equivalent potentials, collocations of different categories and typical illustrational sentences.it is generally agreed that due t

47、o the differences of cultural and conceptual systems between the two different languages concerned, the task of a bilingual dictionary is to find in the target language the equivalents that correspond most closely to the given lexical items in the source language. on the other hand, it has to be ind

48、icated that to what degree the equivalence is to be presented. the users must be appropriately informed of these differences so that no misunderstandings or inappropriate uses arise when a word or expression in the source language is replaced by its counterpart in the target language. as a result, t

49、he responsibility of the lexicographers is to offer translational equivalents with usage information as much as possible through different linguistic means so as to help the users with their comprehension of and expression in the source language, that is, to improve their theirnotes 1 in the thesis

50、the word "chinese" is used to refer to anyone of chinese descent on both shores of the pacific oceafl the usage is necessitated by the fact that the paper writes not only of those chinese who emigrated to america, but also of some chinese who were connected with emigration although they th

51、emselves might never have emigrated.-two other factors that i wanted, but was unable to include, were the cultural defects entrenched in the chinese emigrants and the indifferent policy of the qing government. few students of the chinese exclusion have compared the 19lh century chinese civilization

52、and american civilization, but i believe by instinct that each had its merits and demerits. while any man with any sense could have hoped that the two should learn from each other, the contrary happened. on the one hand, one-way assimilation was the order of the day. anything american was considered

53、 desirable and anything un-american strange. on the other hand, the chinese, well known for their inassimilability, clung to the old ways obstinately. as a chinese historian noted, “they were more chinese than the chinese?9 physically within each other's sight, the chinese and the americans seld

54、om made any effort to understand each other or to be understood by the othe匚3 dictionaries, according to the languages concerned and different intentions, can be classified into three categories, namely, monolingual, bilingual and multilingual dictionaries. the bilingual dictionary is further groupe

55、d into three sub-groups (with english and chinese as the source language and target language respectively): 1) chinese translations and without the detailed explanations. the author is going to put much of his emphasis on the discussion of the translation in the english-chinese translational bilingual dictionaries.since translation is the most impo