國(guó)外應(yīng)用文和學(xué)術(shù)論文的格式

1、application paper the purpose of the application paper is to give you an opportunity to apply the concepts of psychology to your everyday life. the application paper requires you to integrate a theory from the information weve studied with an event or events from your personal experience. in other w

2、ords, you are to use a theory to analyze and to explain something that has taken place in your life. this is not a theoretical review paper nor is it a simple report of a personal experience. an in-depth review of the theoretical material that you are going to discuss is not necessary. this is simpl

3、y repeating what i can find in our text or in class notes. it would be unnecessary work for you to use space to provide an in-depth review of material already available. instead, your task becomes one of using this knowledge to consider viable explanations for your and/or others behavior. you want t

4、o use your example as an illustration of the theory youve chosen, with your goal being to convince me that you actually do understand what the theory and concepts are all about.*technical presentation covers :* paper title* the abstract* the introduction* related work* the body* performance experime

5、nts* the conclusions* future work* the acknowledgements* citations* appendices* grammar and small-scale presentation issues* mechanics* versions and distribution tips for writing technical papers jennifer widom, january 2006 ?here are the notes from a presentation i gave at the stanford infolab frid

6、ay lunch, 1/27/06, with a few (not many) revisions when i reprised the talk on 12/4/09. the presentation covered:paper title?the abstract?the introduction?related work?the body?performance experiments?the conclusions?future work?the acknowledgements?citations?appendices?grammar and small-scale prese

7、ntation issues?mechanics?versions and distributionrunning exampleas a running (fictitious!) example, suppose youve designed and run experiments with a new algorithm for external multipass merge-sort. your algorithm reduces the complexity from o(n log n) to o(n), under the premise that its acceptable

8、 to have some bounded unsortedness in the result. you plan to write up the results for submission to a major conference. note: this example was used throughout the live presentation but i havent followed through much in these notes. thus, the notes include several exercises for the reader. paper tit

9、le ?titles can be long and descriptive:linear-time external multipass sorting with approximation guaranteesor short and sweet: ?approximate external sortheres a middle-of-the-road length, plus a cute name that sticks in peoples minds: ?floosh: a linear-time algorithm for approximate external sortthe

10、 abstractstate the problem, your approach and solution, and the main contributions of the paper. include little if any background and motivation. be factual but comprehensive. the material in the abstract should not be repeated later word for word in the paper. (exercise: write an abstract for the m

11、ultiway sort example.) the introduction the introduction is crucially important. by the time a referee has finished the introduction, hes probably made an initial decision about whether to accept or reject the paper - hell read the rest of the paper looking for evidence to support his decision. a ca

12、sual reader will continue on if the introduction captivated him, and will set the paper aside otherwise. again, the introduction is crucially important.here is the stanford infolab s patented five-point structure for introductions. unless theres a good argument against it, the introduction should co

13、nsist of five paragraphs answering the following five questions: what is the problem?why is it interesting and important?why is it hard? (e.g., why do naive approaches fail?) why hasnt it been solved before? (or, whats wrong with previous proposed solutions? how d oes mine differ?) what are the key

14、components of my approach and results? also include any specific limitations. (exercise: answer these questions for the multiway sort example.)then have a final paragraph or subsection: summary of contributions. it should list the major contributions in bullet form, mentioning in which sections they

15、 can be found. this material d oubles as an outline of the rest of the paper, saving space and eliminating redundancy. (exercise: write the bullet list for the multiway sort example.) related work ?the perennial question: should related work be covered near the beginning of the paper or near the end

16、?beginning , if it can be short yet detailed enough, or if its critical to take a strong defensive stance about previous work right away. in this case related work can be either a subsection at the end of the introduction, or its own section 2. ?end , if it can be summarized quickly early on (in the

17、 introduction or preliminaries), or if sufficient comparisons require the technical content of the paper. in this case related work should appear just before the conclusions, possibly in a more general section discussion and related work. the bodyguideline #1: a clear new important technical contrib

18、ution should have been articulated by the time the reader finishes page 3 (i.e., a quarter of the way through the paper). guideline #2: every section of the paper should tell a story. (dont, however, fall into the common trap of telling the entire story of how you arrived at your results. just tell

19、the story of the results themselves.) the story should be linear, keeping the reader engaged at every step and looking forward to the next step. there should be no significant interruptions - those can go in the appendix; see below. aside from these guidelines, which apply to every paper, the struct

20、ure of the body varies a lot depending on content. important components are: ?running example: when possible, use a running example throughout the paper. it can be introduced either as a subsection at the end of the introduction, or its own section 2 or 3 (depending on related work). ?preliminaries:

21、 this section, which follows the introduction and possibly related work and/or running example, sets up notation and terminology that is not part of the technical contribution. one important function of this section is to delineate material thats not original but is needed for the paper. be concise

22、- remember the critical rule of thumb. ?content: the meat of the paper includes algorithms, system descriptions, new language constructs, analyses, etc. whenever possible use a top-down description: readers should be able to see where the material is going, and they should be able to skip ahead and

23、still get the idea. performance experimentswe could have an entire treatise on this topic alone and i am surely not the expert. here are some random thoughts: ?many conferences expect experiments. ?its easy to do hokey or meaningless experiments, and many papers do. ?its easy to craft experiments to

24、 show your work in its best light, and most papers do. ?what should performance experiments measure? possiblities: o. pure running time o. sensitivity to important parameters o. scalability in various aspects: data size, problem complexity, . o. others? ?what should performance experiments show? pos

25、sibilities: o. absolute performance (i.e., its acceptable/usable) o. relative performance to naive approaches o. relative performance to previous approaches o. relative performance among different proposed approaches o. others? the conclusionsin general a short summarizing paragraph will do, and und

26、er no circumstances should the paragraph simply repeat material from the abstract or introduction. in some cases its possible to now make the original claims more concrete, e.g., by referring to quantitative performance results. future workthis material is important - part of the value of a paper is

27、 showing how the work sets new research directions. i like bullet lists here. (actually i like them in general.) a couple of things to keep in mind: ?if youre actively engaged in follow-up work, say so. e.g.: we are currently extending the algorithm to. blah blah, and preliminary results are encoura

28、ging. this statement serves to mark your territory. ?conversely, be aware that some researchers look to future work sections for research topics. my opinion is that theres nothing wrong with that - consider it a complement. the acknowledgementsdont forget them or youll have people with hurt feelings

29、. acknowledge anyone who contributed in any way: through discussions, feedback on drafts, implementation, etc. if in doubt about whether to include someone, include them. citationsspend the effort to make all citations complete and consistent. do not just copy random inconsistent bibtex (or other) e

30、ntries from the web and call it a day. check over your final bibliography carefully and make sure every entry looks right. appendicesappendices should contain detailed proofs and algorithms only. appendices can be crucial for overlength papers, but are still useful otherwise. think of appendices as

31、random-access substantiation of underlying gory details. as a rule of thumb: ?appendices should not contain any material necessary for understanding the contributions of the paper. ?appendices should contain all material that most readers would not be interested in. grammar and small-scale presentat

32、ion issues?in general everyone writing papers is strongly encouraged to read the short and very useful the elements of style by strunk and white. heres a random list of pet peeves. ?just like a program, all variables (terminology and notation) in the paper shoul d be defined before being used, and s

33、hould be d efined only once. (exception: sometimes after a long hiatus its useful to remind the reader of a definition.) global definitions should be grouped into the preliminaries section; other definitions should be given just before their first use. ?do not use etc. unless the remaining items are

34、 completely obvious. o. acceptable: we shall number the phases 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.o. unacceptable: we measure performance factors such as volatility, scalability, etc.?never say for various reasons. (example: we decided not to consider the alternative, for various reasons.) tell the reader the reasons!

35、 avoid nonreferential use of this, that, these, it, and so on (ullman pet peeve). requiring explicit identification of what this refers to enforces clarity of writing. here is a typical example of nonreferential this: our experiments test several different environments and the algorithm does well in

36、 some but not all of them. this is important because . (exercise: the above rule is violated at least once in this d ocument. find the violations.) ?italics are for definitions or quotes, not for emphasis (gries pet peeve). your writing should be constructed such that context alone provides sufficie

37、nt emphasis. (exercise: the above rule is violated at least once in this d ocument. find the violations.) ?people frequently use which versus that incorrectly. that is defining; which is nondefining. examples of correct use: othe algorithms that are easy to implement all run in linear time.othe algo

38、rithms, which are easy to implement, all run in linear time.mechanics?always run a spelling checker on your final paper, no excuses. ?for drafts and technical reports use 11 point font, generous spacing, 1 margins, and single-column format. theres no need to torture your casual readers with the tiny

39、 fonts and tight spacing used in conference proceedings these days. ?in drafts and final camera-ready, fonts in figures should be no smaller than the font size in the body of the paper. ?tables, figures, graphs, and algorithms should always be placed on the top of a page or column, not in the body o

40、f the text unless it is very small and fits into the flow of the paper. ?every table, figure, graph, or algorithm should appear on the same page as its first reference, or on the following page (latex willing.). ?before final submission or publication of your paper, print it once and take a look - y

41、ou might be quite surprised how different it looks on paper from how it looked on your screen (if you even bothered to look at it after you ran latex the last time.). versions and distribution?many papers have a submitted (and later published) conference version, along with a full paper technical re

42、port on the web. its important to manage versions carefully, both in content and proliferation. my recommendation is, whenever possible, for the full paper to consist of simply the conference version plus appendices. the full paper should be the only public one aside from conference proceedings, it

43、should be coordinated with latest (final) conference version, and modifications to the full paper should always overwrite all publicly accessible previous versions of it. ?i believe in putting papers on the web the minute theyre finished. they should be dated and can be referenced as technical repor

44、ts - its not necessary to have an actual technical report number. never, ever put up a paper with a conference copyright notice when its only been submitted, and never, ever reference a paper as submitted to conference x. youre only asking for embarrassment when the paper is finally published in con

45、ference y a year or two later. research application paper high risk pregnant womens perceptions of bed rest student name elmhurst college bed rest 2 research application paper: high risk pregnant womens perceptions of bed rest rationale during a high-risk pregnancy, bed rest is a common intervention

46、 used to prolong the pregnancy. although bed rest reduces the physiological stress of a high-risk pregnancy, it can cause other stresses which interfere with compliance. one of the clients this nursing student cared for during her family reproductive health clinical experience had been on bed rest f

47、or two weeks. in order to facilitate and promote her compliance with the needed bed rest, the student applied the nursing interventions suggested by the authors of a research study that investigated the perceptions of women who were on bed rest because of a high risk pregnancy. the students primary

48、rationale for selecting this research study as a resource in planning client care was that the nursing implications were based on pregnant womens perceptions of the stresses associated with bed rest. the student reasoned that interventions based on clients perceptions of the problem would be effecti

49、ve in promoting compliance. the student identifies the client care problem and the specific rationale for applying the interventions based on the results of this research study. she uses apa style by writing the paper in third person.setting the setting for the white, collins, and long (1997) study

50、included an antepartum high risk unit in a level iii hospital in midwestern canada and a home health care agency caring for high risk mothers. the student applied the suggested nursing interventions on an antepartum care unit at a level iii hospital in a midwestern metropolitan area in the united st

51、ates. therefore, the two settings were very similar. the student very succinctly compares the two settings.sample the sample subjects in the selected research study included 24 married white women aged 26 - 36 with educational levels ranging from high school diplomas to graduate degrees. the subject

52、s were experiencing high-risk pregnancies with 20% experiencing pregnancy-induced hypertension and 51% experiencing preterm labor. sixty percent of the subjects were multiple gravida and 11% of those subjects had been on activity restrictions during their previous pregnancies. criteria for subject s

53、election included bed rest for at least one week and a minimum gestation age of 26 weeks. the average length of bed rest was 20 days and the average gestational age was 32.5 weeks. all but two of the subjects were on modified bed rest and were allowed bathroom privileges or short periods of standing

54、. none of the subjects were taking tocolytic drugs. the students client was a 38-year-old married white woman with a graduate degree. she was a gravida four, para 012. she had a molar pregnancy with a dilatation and curettage in 1995; severe preeclampsia in 1996 resulting in a 28 week preterm baby b

55、orn by a classic c-section; and miscarried twins in 1996. none of the previous pregnancies had included activity restrictions. during the 34th week of her fourth pregnancy, she was admitted to the hospital with preeclampsia and placed on bed rest with bathroom privileges. the client had been on bed

56、rest for two weeks when cared for by the student. the client was not taking tocolytic drugs. it was anticipated that if the ultrasound at the end of the third week of bed rest indicated the fetuss lungs were mature, the baby would be delivered by c-section at 37 weeks. this client was very similar t

57、o the subjects in the selected research study. the student describes the demographic characteristics, pregnancy history / high-risk status, and selection criteria for the study subjects. then in a parallel way, she describes her clients demographic characteristics, pregnancy history and present high

58、-risk status. it is very clear to the reader that the studys subjects and students client are similar.application of study recommendations based on the results of their research study, the investigators suggested several nursing interventions to decrease the situational, environmental, and family st

59、resses associated with bed rest during a high-risk pregnancy. situational stress includes the perception of loss of control when an individual is placed in the sick role. the investigators recommend that nurses decrease this perception by allowing the client to participate in her own self care and t

60、o wear her own street clothes instead of gowns. environmental stress includes the perception of boredom from not actively participating in ones normal routine. the investigators recommend that nurses assess the clients interests and provide learning materials, videos, and selected exercises to decre