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四、六級考試寫作部分答題技巧中、英文寫作差異研究:英漢思維方式及語篇結(jié)構(gòu)對比人們說話和寫文章,為方便聽話人和讀者的理解,一定要遵循約定俗成的語篇組織規(guī)律。然而,由于不同文化在思維方式上存在著差異,其語篇組織結(jié)構(gòu)也會因此而不同。中英文之間就存在這樣的差異。中國人說話或?qū)懳恼?,常常不是采取直線式或直接切題的作法,而是習(xí)慣于迂回式思維,即避開主題,把自己的想法保留到最后或者含而不露,讓讀者自己去領(lǐng)悟。而且,中國人表達事物總是按時間和事理發(fā)展順序由因到果、由先到后、由大到小進行闡述,這種思維方式可稱為具體一般型(Particular-General Pattern)。然而,在英語中,人們最普遍使用的語篇思維模式是一般具體型 (General-Particular Pattern)。其特點就是由作者先把要表達的思想概括成全文的立證句(thesis statement)或段落的主題句 (topic sentence),然后舉例說明或交代細節(jié)。這是典型的直線性思維。它包括兩種表現(xiàn)形式:1)先概括后舉例;2)先講整體輪廓,后說各種細節(jié)。對于許多學(xué)習(xí)英語的中國學(xué)生來說,盡管已經(jīng)掌握了一定的英語詞匯及語法規(guī)則,但因為缺乏對英語語篇結(jié)構(gòu)的認識,他們常常會無意識地把漢語的語篇結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則應(yīng)用在英文寫作的過程當中,因而造成了不符合英文語篇結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)律的問題,而這些學(xué)生雖然使用英文寫作,他們的作文卻表現(xiàn)出典型的中國式的思維慣式。這兩種思維模式的差異造成了中國學(xué)生進行英文寫作時的最大問題,即把漢語的思維模式應(yīng)用在英文寫作中。英漢段落結(jié)構(gòu)對比一篇文章由若干段落構(gòu)成, 段落是文章的主要成分。段落由一系列在邏輯和結(jié)構(gòu)上有內(nèi)在聯(lián)系的句子組成, 它可以標示出比詞和句更長的單元思維層次,還可以方便閱讀,使讀者清晰看出文章各部分的區(qū)別與聯(lián)系。因此,段落與整篇文章的關(guān)系是既緊密相依又獨立成體??梢?,寫好段落是寫好文章的核心。由于英語和漢語的思維模式不同,人們寫作時,段落的結(jié)構(gòu)組織、內(nèi)容安排、語義層次發(fā)展等方面都會表現(xiàn)出很大的差異。其中最主要的差異是在段落發(fā)展方面英語采用直線性思維,而漢語呈現(xiàn)出螺旋型思維模式。漢語段落的語義發(fā)展是螺旋型的,也就是說,一個段落針對一個意思或幾個意思進行闡述,而這種闡述是順著思想自然發(fā)展的,如螺旋形式向前運動。在漢語段落中,主題句可有可無,段落的中心思想由讀者來體會。一個段落里包括的內(nèi)容較多,甚至有的內(nèi)容和段落中心思想沒有密切的關(guān)系,比如作者突發(fā)的感想。由于漢語文章的許多段落沒有主題句,一段里包括的內(nèi)容觀點就沒有什么限制了。在寫作過程中,作者對中心思想的發(fā)展是通過不斷重復(fù)來實現(xiàn)的。在一個段落中,前面已談?wù)撨^的內(nèi)容,后面還會提到,或強調(diào),或借以引出新的內(nèi)容,所以說是螺旋式的。典型的英文段落是由三部分組成的:主題句(Topic sentence)支持句(Supporting sentences)總結(jié)句(Summary sentence)。英漢句子結(jié)構(gòu)對比要想寫出地道的英文句子,應(yīng)該首先掌握英語三種基本句子結(jié)構(gòu):(1) 簡單句(Simple Sentences)i. 一個謂語動詞和一個單數(shù)主語Computers make life easy for many people.ii. 兩個并列謂語動詞和一個單數(shù)主語Computers cost a lot of money and require regular maintenance.iii. 兩個并列謂語動詞和一個復(fù)數(shù)主語Businesses and individuals buy computers but use them mostly for correspondence.(2) 并列句(Compound Sentences)并列句包括兩個或兩個以上獨立句,它們用以下三種方式連接在一起:i. 用分號連接Some people like computers; others are afraid of modern technology.ii. 用逗號和括號內(nèi)七個連詞之一(and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet)Students usually write with a computer, but I like writing by hand.iii. 用分號和連接副詞,如furthermore, moreover, therefore等Students usually write with a computer; however, I like writing by hand.(3) 復(fù)合句(Complex Sentences)復(fù)合句由一個主句和一個或多個從句組成。英語中一共有三種基本類型的復(fù)合句:i. 從句相當于副詞Although computers can save time, they take a long time to understand.ii. 從句相當于形容詞Database software is essential for companies which need to maintain records.iii. 從句相當于名詞Most experts insist that computers are essential in schools.英文寫作強調(diào)句子結(jié)構(gòu)的變化和豐富性。在考試中,考生應(yīng)避免使用重復(fù)的句子結(jié)構(gòu),而應(yīng)采用變化的方式來表達自己的觀點。其實,練習(xí)使用變化的句型最好的方法就是注意觀察其他的作者是如何構(gòu)造句子的,并且模仿他們。另外,考生需要做大量的練習(xí)才能寫出有意義的、富有變化的、準確的句子。漢語的句式結(jié)構(gòu)借助自然語序,按動作發(fā)生的順序或因果邏輯關(guān)系來排列,各個分句逐步交代,呈線性遞進,來表達復(fù)雜的思想??梢哉f,漢語的句子結(jié)構(gòu)如同竹子一樣一節(jié)節(jié)地延伸。而英語則不同。英語的句子就像一棵大樹。句子中的主句就是大樹的主干,各種從句,短語以及獨立結(jié)構(gòu)則是大樹的樹枝。漢語句子是按照時間和事理發(fā)展順序,運用詞匯手段順暢表達而出的。而所對應(yīng)的英語句子卻打破了漢語的順序,每個句子以主句為主干,利用從句等結(jié)構(gòu)來完成英語句子的樹型結(jié)構(gòu)。由于漢語句子呈線性遞進,竹竿型延伸,沒有英文中樹枝狀的從屬句結(jié)構(gòu),因此中國學(xué)生常常習(xí)慣用簡單句和并列句,而不是用復(fù)合句來表達思想。但是,地道的英文寫作中卻要求大量使用從屬結(jié)構(gòu)。中國學(xué)生要改變在英文寫作中大量使用簡單句、并列句的傾向,就要善于利用英語中的從句、分詞和短語等語言形式,構(gòu)筑英語句子的樹型結(jié)構(gòu)。這是改變竹竿型簡單句,寫出地道英語的關(guān)鍵。寫作步驟研究:在考試時,由于時間和其他客觀條件的限制,短文寫作的步驟要比平常的寫作步驟簡化得多。一般說來,考生只能進行簡單的構(gòu)思,確定大致的內(nèi)容以及分幾段來論述或說明,然后就要動筆寫了。但這種步驟的簡化依靠的是平時科學(xué)的練習(xí),否則,要想在短文寫作中取得高分就是空談了。寫作能力的提高是一個很緩慢的過程,需要勤動手、動腦和動筆,但這并不意味著寫作就沒有任何規(guī)律可循,沒有技巧可言。一般來說,一篇文章的寫作需要經(jīng)歷四個階段,即我們常說的“四個步驟”:審題,構(gòu)思選材,動筆擬稿和修改完善。所以考生在準備復(fù)習(xí)迎考階段,就應(yīng)該按照短文寫作的一般規(guī)律來訓(xùn)練,這樣才能達到較為理想的效果,所謂“磨刀不誤砍柴功”,就是這個道理。下面我們分別來論述寫作的四個步驟。 第一步 審清題目 審題也可稱為“理解題意”(Finding the theme)。在開始做“短文寫作”之前,最重要的一步是審題,即仔細分析題目所包含的內(nèi)容信息,猜測出題者的意圖,考慮可能運用的各種寫作手法,將題目要求的中心思想表達出來。審題一旦出現(xiàn)偏差,就會全功盡棄。審題一般限定在5分鐘之內(nèi)。 1. 審題要達到的四個確定 (1)確定采用的文體:一般有四種形式,即記敘文、描寫文、說明文和議論文。其中最常用的寫作文體是議論文。 (2)確定寫作對象:寫人還是記事?解釋現(xiàn)象還是講道理、論是非? (3)確定寫作重點:所描寫的人或事物有哪些主要特點?所論證的問題的主要論據(jù)是什么? (4)確定文章段落和段落主題:要寫幾段?每段寫什么內(nèi)容?每段的長度大約是多少? 2.審題所指的范圍 (1)審清作文標題; (2)審清試卷中所提供的主題句,或關(guān)鍵詞,或情景,或圖表,以及字數(shù)的要求等。 下面我們通過實例對審題的過程做進一步說明: 比如我們現(xiàn)在要寫一篇題為Environmental Protection的作文。所給的提綱有三點:Today the problem of environment has become more and more serious;Concerned people have made some progress in environmental protection;Still more measures should be taken to solve environmental problems。首先,我們確定該篇文章的文體應(yīng)是議論文;其次,我們確定它是寫事的,即就某個話題環(huán)境保護展開論述;第三,我們可根據(jù)提綱中的提示信息來確定寫作的范圍以及所需要的論據(jù);第四,就是要確定作文的段落數(shù)以及每個段落里的論述重點。有了這樣的思路和基本輪廓之后,寫起文章來就不會跑題。 再如1998年的一個考試寫作題。它是一幅卡通漫畫,圖畫中有一只老母雞,兩個雞蛋和掛在老母雞胸前的招牌,招牌上寫有幾行字;另外圖的右邊還有說明文字(captions),實為一首“打油詩”。通過分析,我們知道老母雞所許下的兩個諾言本是它的份內(nèi)事,無需夸耀,也沒有什么值得驕傲的理由。再看看右邊的說明文字,我們馬上會明白,原來這幅漫畫反映了一種社會現(xiàn)象,即現(xiàn)在有些單位、個人或組織標榜自己能為公眾提供多么好的服務(wù)或產(chǎn)品,但實際上這些事情都是他們的基本工作,本應(yīng)該就做好。因此這幅漫畫實為針砭時弊。經(jīng)過這樣的審題之后,我們就可以確定文章的文體、段落的要點、論述的重心以及所要引用的實例。 另外,在審題的過程中,還要抓住題目以及提綱中的關(guān)鍵詞和各提綱要點之間的邏輯關(guān)系。例如,有一次作文題目是Advertisement加TV。這個題目很大,所包含的內(nèi)容很多,所給的提綱是: Present state;Reasons;My comments。這些提綱對內(nèi)容進行了一定的限制,但是我們還是無法確定Reasons的內(nèi)容是什么,結(jié)果許多考生寫了為什么人們喜歡看電視廣告。但在題目的要求中有這樣一條:Your composition should start with the given opening sentence:Today more and more advertisements are seen on the TV screen。顯而易見,這一要求把整個作文的主題已限定得非常明確了,因為所給出的句子就是第一段的主題句,那么,提綱中的要求的present state內(nèi)容就是電視廣告越來越多,而不是為什么人們喜歡電視廣告,那么,my comments也就自然是考生對于電視廣告越來越多這一現(xiàn)象的觀點了。 第二步 構(gòu)思選材 文章的主題和待寫的內(nèi)容確定之后,就是構(gòu)思選材這一步了。構(gòu)思就是思考主題所需要的題材并按照作文主旨的要求組織成層次清楚、合乎邏輯、前后連貫的短文框架。構(gòu)思實際上是整理思路(Organizing the thought),是對“審題”階段的第三、第四個確定的延伸。 1.構(gòu)思選材時要注意的問題 (1)要圍繞主題。要選取和文章主題有關(guān)并能烘托、突出主題的材料,與主題關(guān)系不大的材料可以舍棄,與主題無關(guān)的則應(yīng)堅決棄之不用。這一過程也是主題具體化的過程。 (2)要典型。要選擇具有代表性的、有說服力的材料。材料不在于多,而在于精。 (3)要準確、真實。要選擇真實感人能令人信服的材料。 (4)要思路開闊,想象要豐富。 2.短文框架的組織 短文框架的組織就是我們經(jīng)常所說的提綱的擬寫,這是構(gòu)思階段的重要步驟。選材確定后,就應(yīng)著手擬寫提綱。因為作文考試時間有限,提綱要盡量做到簡明扼要,不浪費筆墨,如作文試題中已經(jīng)提供了寫作提綱,就可以直接把所提供的提綱擴展成主題句,這樣一個完整的提綱就出來了。 下面我們通過具體實例來了解在構(gòu)思階段如何有效地組織短文框架以及選材。 例1 Directions: Title:Procrastination Outline:(1)People always procrastinate; (2)Why they always procrastinate; (3)Comments On procrastination 在經(jīng)過仔細的審題之后,我們在進行構(gòu)思的過程中首先要把短文的內(nèi)容具體化,對于這個題目而言,它是與人們的日常生活有密切聯(lián)系的一種普遍現(xiàn)象,即人們總是有一種惰性,總是把今天該做的事情推到明天去做。有關(guān)procrastination(拖延)的內(nèi)容很多,我們可以從許多方面去論述這個話題:如拖延的種類、拖延的表現(xiàn)、拖延的原因等。但是根據(jù)題目所提供的提綱來看,文章是要求我們寫有關(guān)拖延的原因及對這種現(xiàn)象發(fā)表我們自己的見解,這樣一來,內(nèi)容就具體多了。然后我們把題目提供的提綱擴展成完整的句子,就成了各個段落的主題句,這是“一石二鳥”的效果。 Procrastination Outline:(1)People always procrastinate their work until a later date; (2)There are innumerable reasons for procrastinating; (3)Time is moneyNever put off todays unfinished work until tomorrow 在得到各個段落的主題句之后,就要圍繞主題句的內(nèi)容,考慮能夠支持主題句內(nèi)容的細節(jié)。在此過程中,可以通過自我提問的方式,打開自己的思路,提問可以圍繞what,who,when,how,why等問題展開,再從中選擇主要問題,例如,就上述題目來講,我們可以做以下的設(shè)問: (1)What cases in point do we often see in our life as far as procrastination is concerned? (2)What are the reasons for procrastinating. (3)What can procrastination bring about? 到這一步為止,文章的基本思路和輪廓已經(jīng)出來了,即有了文章的“骨架”,剩下的工作就是如何往里面“加肉”的問題了,即如何添加內(nèi)容。通常在構(gòu)思的過程中,我們的腦海中總會產(chǎn)生與主題句相關(guān)的詞、短語和句子(包括所要使用的一些句型等),此時應(yīng)該立刻將這些東西簡單地記下來,否則它們就會一晃而過。盡管雜亂無章,但是非常有用。例如,對上面的問題,我們會聯(lián)想到如下相關(guān)內(nèi)容: (1)late for doing exercises;excuse oneself from;postpone;put off;lazy;not persevere in doing something; (2)encounter;a difficult task;an insurmountable task;tackle;pick up the bad habit;not have a strong will-power;some attractions and temptations;no goal in ones life;no worries about ones work;no sense of duties and responsibilities; (3)waste a lot of money;waste ones life;cant achieve ones goal,not attain ones purposes;cumulative effects;disasters;Procrastination is a thief of time 接下來,我們就可以在此基礎(chǔ)上圍繞各個段落的中心思想,把上述短語進行取舍和擴充,使它們成為完整的句子,此時我們就到了寫作的第三個步驟,即動筆擬稿階段。需要指出的是:在構(gòu)思過程中,并不一定總是先有提綱,后再考慮有關(guān)細節(jié)等問題,實際上這兩個方面是相互聯(lián)系的,細節(jié)的考慮也有助于提綱的擬定。 構(gòu)思取材的時間一般限定在2-3分鐘之內(nèi)??荚嚂r,在如此短的時間內(nèi)完成這一步驟,必須有平時刻苦的訓(xùn)練作基礎(chǔ)。 第三步 動筆擬稿 動筆擬稿(drafting)是建立在認真構(gòu)思的基礎(chǔ)之上的。擬稿的時間不應(yīng)太長,一般限定在20-30分鐘之內(nèi)。擬稿是草擬提綱。草擬的理由是:由于寫作測試時間緊,沒有充裕的時間去醞釀,從選詞造句到謀篇布局都不可能像平時訓(xùn)練那樣字斟句酌。同時,草擬有助于主題的進一步把握,材料的合理取舍和安排,不至于下筆時無章可循,離題萬里。 鑒于此,我們應(yīng)著重考慮如下兩個對策: 1. 措詞與表達 在具體寫作過程中,一定要做到用詞準確,要從讀者的角度出發(fā),開門見山,平鋪直敘,簡明扼要地把自己的思想表達清楚。切忌“峰回路轉(zhuǎn),一波三折”。要盡可能地選用自己有把握的詞語和自己能熟練運用的句型來表達思想。 2. 邏輯組織 遣詞造句、組段謀篇,要注意上下銜接、前后照應(yīng)。要有邏輯地完成句子間的銜接和段落間的過渡。 (1)要注意句子與句子之間的邏輯銜接,突出論據(jù)間的邏輯關(guān)系。在下筆之前要先想好每一段寫幾個句子,寫什么樣的句子,怎樣安排句子的順序和句子間的過渡,以避免出現(xiàn)與主題無關(guān)、前后矛盾的句子。此外,還要注意句子的多樣性。在一個段落或一篇短文中,既有短句,又有長句;既有簡單句,又有并列句和主從復(fù)合句,文章才會顯得生動。 (2)段落間的過渡。在寫作的過程中要注意段落間的相互聯(lián)系,考慮段落的連接和轉(zhuǎn)折,采用“啟、承、轉(zhuǎn)、合”等手法,恰當而合乎邏輯地把段落連接起來,使段落之間過渡自然、前后照應(yīng),否則文章就會顯得松散、零亂,成為幾個相互毫無聯(lián)系的段落。通過以上分析,例1中的文章就可以這樣擬稿: ProcrastinationWe tend to procrastinate our business. This happens in almost all walks of our life. We would put off todays unfinished work until tomorrow, and tomorrow we would do todays unfinished job. We seem to have slipped into such a habit and never got out.We postpone trying to accomplish troublesome things, not only because we want to avoid difficulties, but also because we are hesitant and uncertain. As a result, we are forever leaving something undone. In many cases these troublesome matters will turn out to be trivial and can be solved without too much effort. Each time we put off until tomorrow what we can do today, we will encounter additional problems that will make it even harder to finish the tasks that originally were quite simple. In other words, the cumulative effect of procrastination can be disastrous.If it is because the task seems difficult, even insurmountable, procrastination still will not solve anything. Taking positive action usually will help us move forward and will lead to the best results, if we dont try to pursue our goals, we will never be able to attain them.Dont let bagatelles weigh you down. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today. Follow this motto and you will hold your fortune in your hand. (216 words)第四步 修改完善在正式考試中,考生不免心理緊張,再加之平時訓(xùn)練不夠,很容易在寫作中出現(xiàn)一些簡單的、容易出現(xiàn)的語法錯誤,因此考生在寫完作文后,應(yīng)盡量抽出時間全面檢查。1. 檢查修改每次集中解決一兩個問題(1) 在語篇水平上進行檢查在語篇水平上進行檢查,也就是從全局進行檢查。主要檢查文章的主題是否明確;觀點是否可靠;內(nèi)容是否切題;闡述是否充分;描述是否具體;例證是否恰當;論證是否有力;推理是否合乎邏輯;文體風(fēng)格是否合適;表達方式是否相符;段落過渡是否自然;結(jié)論是否一致等。(2) 段落水平上的檢查段落水平上的檢查,即局部檢查。主要檢查段落是否完整;段落的擴展是否充分;細節(jié)安排是否混亂;段內(nèi)各句銜接是否緊湊;語義是否連貫等。(3) 在句子水平上的檢查在句子水平上的檢查,也可以說是在語言方面進行檢查。作文中常出現(xiàn)的語言錯誤主要表現(xiàn)在以下幾個方面:主謂一致問題;動詞時態(tài)問題;名詞的單、復(fù)數(shù)變化;“漢語式表達”,即Chinglish;詞序安排方面;不完整句子,即“片語”問題(fragment);單詞的拼寫形式;標點符號及大小寫問題等。2. 修改的四個原則 (1) 盡可能把語意抽象的單詞改為語意具體的單詞; (2) 多用主動語態(tài),盡量避免用被動語態(tài); (3) 多用短小的單詞,盡量避免用冗長的單詞;(4) 長、短句結(jié)合;長句的關(guān)系比較復(fù)雜,如果沒有把握,盡量避免使用長句。寫作可參考句式研究:句式是文章的基石。不同的內(nèi)容要用不同的句式來表達,而同一內(nèi)容也可以用不同的句式來表達。句式不同,表達效果也就不同。只有句式多樣化,文章才會生動有趣,充滿活力。 以下是短文寫作中使用頻率高、覆蓋面廣的一些基本句式,每組句式的功能相同或相似,考生可根據(jù)自己的情況選擇其中的一兩個,做到能夠熟練正確地仿寫或套用,將有助于在寫作時事半功倍。1.表示原因1) There are some reasons for this:2) The reasons for this are as follows:3) The reason for this is obvious:4) The reason for this is not far to seek:5) The reason for this is that.6) The reason + that-clause is.7) The reason + why-clause is.8) The reason to do sth. is.例如 -For health reasons, many people show great interest in fresh vegetables. They may eat them without cooking them first, or cook them quickly in very little water because they want to keep the vitamins. -There are three reasons for the changes that have taken place in our life. Firstly, peoples living standard has been greatly improved. Secondly, most people are well paid, and they can afford what they need or like. Last but not least, more and more people prefer to enjoy modern life. -The reason for canceling the travel is that they lack money. -The reason why we grow trees is that they can provide fresh air. -The first reason for acceptance is that they help reduce pressure.2.表示“對有好處”l) to sb.s advantage2) do sb. good3) be beneficial to sb.4) be of great benefit to sb.5) for the benefit of sb.6) bring benefits to sb.例如: -It would be to your advantage to agree to his demands. -Books are like friends. They can help us know the world better, and they can open our minds and widen our horizons. Therefore, reading extensively is of great benefit to us. -The money is to be used for the benefit of the poor.3.表示“對不好,有壞處”1) put sb. at a disadvantage2) to ones disadvantage3) do harm to sb./sth.4) do sb. harm5) be harmful to sb.例如: -So please dont object to me; in talking about it you put me at a disadvantage. -Her weight will be very much to her disadvantage if she wants to be a dancer. -These are daring men, though we shall put them at a disadvantage, they may do us some harm unless we are careful. -However, everything divides into two. Television can also be harmful to us. It can do harm to our health and make us lazy if we spend too much time watching television.4.表示“是重要的(必要的、自然的、困難的、方便的、可能的)” 1) be + adj. + for (to) 2) be + adj. + to do sth.3) be + adj. + that-clause (the subjunctive mood) 例如: -Strong boots are essential for mountaineering. -We can live without clothes, but food and drink are essential to life.-He said it was important that every member send his subscription by the end of the month. -It is quite natural to dislike going to the dentist. -Is it really necessary for me to attend the meeting? -It is vital that we arrive at the hospital soon.5.提出建議、觀點等1) It is (high) time (imperative, inevitable, necessary, etc.) that.2) The way (solution, key, answer, etc. ) to. is.3) It should be noted (pointed out, emphasized, etc.) that.例如: -It is high time that parents, educators and the government made concerted efforts to put an end to this situation. -The best way to solve this problem I think is to give young people opportunities to do things independently. -It is imperative that drastic measures (should) be taken to end poverty worldwide. -These are not the only three measures we can take. But it should be noted that we need to take strong action to eliminate the use of illegal drugs.6. 舉例子1) for example / for instance2) such as.3). and so on4) A good case in point is.5) A particular example for this is.6) Just consider (think of) the matter (case) of.7) As a(n) example (illustration, case) in point例如: -There are many things you can do to help you recall past events, such as keeping a diary, buying postcards, and taking photos. -A good case in point is that some successful students are so obsessed with their grade- point average that they never branch out into tempting new areas. -Just consider the matter of raising flowers that are delicate and sensitive to watering. -As a case in point, an employee of a British firm can be denied a promotion because this person is too old. However, such action would be discriminatory and illegal in the United States.7.提出假設(shè)1) suppose that.2) just imagine.3) it is reasonable to expect that.4) it is possible that.例如: -Furthermore, suppose that the people of my street think it would bring a huge benefit to our neighbourhood if I were to pursue post-graduate studies in Harvard. -Just imagine what would happen if Bruce just doesnt interact with the crowd. -It is reasonable to expect people to be rational most of the time. -It is possible that the researchers only studied the cases of a few people, while their situations are far from being representative of most of the population.8.表示倍數(shù)1) . times + the + size ( length, height, width, etc.) + of.2) . times + that of.3) . times + as + big (long, high, wide, fast, many, much, etc.) +as.4) . times + bigger (longer, higher, etc.) + than.5) . times + over.例如: -The river is five times the length of that stream. -The number of the students of 2003 was three times that of 1990. -He earns four times as much as her. -The meeting room is three times bigger than our office. -Their books are three times over ours.9.介紹圖表內(nèi)容1) The table (chart, diagram, figure) presents (shows, demonstrates, illustrates, depicts, portrays, etc.) that.2) As is represented (shown, demonstrated, illustrated, depicted, portrayed, etc.) in the table (chart, diagram, figure).3) According to the table (chart, diagram, figure).4) As can be seen from the table (chart, diagram, figure).5) From the table (chart, diagram, figure), we can see that.6) Its clear (apparent, evident, etc.) from the table (chart, diagram, figure) that.例如:-The table shows that private houses account for 80% in 2000, up from 25% in i990, while state-owned houses have undergone downward change. -In fact, there is a direct relationship between educational attainment and the likelihood of being employed in a low-wage job, as is illustrated in the chart. -According to the figure, tobacco consumption was about 143.64 billion pounds in 1994, and about 142 billion pounds in 1995. -As is shown in the diagram, light will pass through two polarizing filters with their polarizing axes in the same direction. -As can be seen from the table, great changes have taken place in Beijing in the past three decades in terms of revenue growth. -From the table, we can see that in the past 10 years, the number of people in a given city who have traveled abroad has increased considerably.10.引出看法1) have (take, adopt, assume, etc.) the view (opinion, etc.) that.2) as to sb.3) according to sb.4) in the opinion of sb.5) from the viewpoint of sb.6) believe (think, argue, insist, maintain, etc.) that.例如: -I have the view that over the years there has been a slowdown in revenue growth. -In my opinion, Nancy, you are the best reporter Ive ever worked with. -According to the police, his attackers beat him with a blunt instrument. -As to me, I prefer the first idea. -From the viewpoint of us manufacturers, only the source of competition has changed, but the burden is as heavy as before. -I argued that the war had shown scientists could help solve intelligence problems without necess

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