語言學(xué)基本知識(shí).docx

語言學(xué)的基本概念1. What is linguistics? (1) The definition: Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language, or, alternatively, the scientific study of language. (2) The main branches of Linguistics: Phonetics 語音學(xué) Phonology 音位學(xué) Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué) Syntax 句法學(xué) Semantics 語義學(xué) Pragmatics 語用學(xué)2. General Linguistics & Applied Linguistics (1) The main difference General Linguistics: 理論研究，研究對(duì)象為人類所有語言Applied Linguistics: 應(yīng)用研究，語言在各個(gè)領(lǐng)域的實(shí)際應(yīng)用(2) The main branches of each General Linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, Pragmatics Applied Linguistics: Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Physiological Phonelics, etc. (Page 64, Para1)Note: 上述應(yīng)用語言學(xué)分分支，指的是廣義的應(yīng)用語言學(xué)的分支，狹義的應(yīng)用語言學(xué)只指語言教學(xué)3. Important distinctions in Linguistics (1) Descriptive Linguistics V.S. Prescriptive Linguistics Dont say X. a prescriptive command People dont say X. a descriptive statement The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Prescriptive Linguistics: 規(guī)定正確的用法，按照此規(guī)定使用語言 Descriptive Linguistics: 語言的實(shí)際用法(2) Synchronic Linguistics V.S. Diachronic Linguistics -Saussure Diachronic Linguistics: the study of language through the course of its history. Synchronic Linguistics: the study of language, which takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. (3) Speech V.S. Writing Speech: communication by word of mouth Writing: symbol of language(4) Langue V.S. Parole Langue: the common possession of a speech community 言語活動(dòng)中社會(huì)成員共同使用的部分，是社會(huì)共有的交際工具。Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics 語言上的實(shí)際表現(xiàn)或語料，在具體場(chǎng)合下的具體話語。(5) Competence V.S. Performance -ChomskyCompetence: a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations. What we do when we speak or listen. Phonetics語音學(xué)1. Definition The study of the pronunciation (including how sounds are made, transmitted, and received發(fā)出，傳遞，感知), description and classification of speech sounds. 比如：p是用什么發(fā)音器官發(fā)出來的？是爆破音還是唇齒音？是元音還是輔音？是輕音還是濁音？ Articulatory Phonetics發(fā)音語音學(xué): the production of speech sounds-organs Acoustic Phonetics聲學(xué)語音學(xué): the property of sound waves-transmission Auditory Phonetics聽覺語音學(xué): the way in which the listener analyses or possesses a sound wave-perception 2. Classification of English Speech SoundsDifference: whether the air from the lungs meets with obstruction in the throat, the nose, or the mouth when you pronounce. Consonants (24)Vowels (20)(1) Classification of Consonants Voiced or voicelss 清音或濁音 （8對(duì)）Voiced: p, t, k, f, , s, , tVoiceless: b, d, g, v, , z, , d Place of pronunciation （分為8類，共24個(gè)音標(biāo)）Bilabial: p, b, m, w (4個(gè))Labiodental: f,v （2個(gè)）Dental: , (2個(gè))Alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, r, l (7個(gè))Palatal-alveolar: , t, , d (4個(gè))Palatal: j (1個(gè))Velar: k, g, (3個(gè))Glottal: h （1個(gè)） Manner of Articulation (分為6類，共24個(gè))Stop: p, b, t, d, k, g (6個(gè))Fricative: f, v, , , , , s, z, h (9個(gè))Affricate: t, d (2個(gè))Nasal: m, n, (3個(gè))Lateral: l (1個(gè))Appronimant: w, r, j (3個(gè))注：1. 69頁的表格必須背會(huì)，其中一個(gè)格子里有兩個(gè)音標(biāo)的，左為清，右為濁2. 描述輔音：一說清濁，二說發(fā)音部位，三說發(fā)音方式 （2）Classification of vowels Monophthongs (12個(gè)): i:, i, , :, u:, u, e, , :, , , a: Diphthongs （8個(gè): ei, ai, i; u, au, i, e, u注：1. 69頁元音表格必須背會(huì)，但忽略tense和lax 2. high，mid，low表示舌頭抬高的高度；front, central, back表示發(fā)此音時(shí)舌頭最高部分的位置；tense長(zhǎng)元音，lax短元音（只有帶兩個(gè)點(diǎn)的才是長(zhǎng)元音）。3. 此表可以簡(jiǎn)化為：FrontCentralBackHigh i: i u:, uMid e, :Low a:Eg. i: high, front, tense vowel u high, back, lax vowel mid, central, lax vowelPhonology音系學(xué)1. DefinitionPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. 研究支配語言結(jié)構(gòu)，分部和排列的規(guī)則，以及音節(jié)的形式。比如：p在poor，soup，spirit里面的發(fā)音有不同嗎？為什么有不同？即便有不同，為什么又永遠(yuǎn)不會(huì)和g的發(fā)音混淆？2. Phonemes, phones, and Allophones Phoneme：音位，在音系學(xué)研究的最基本單位，國際音標(biāo)中所列舉出來的都有哪些發(fā)音。Phone：音素，語音學(xué)研究的嘴基本單位，指人的發(fā)音器官所能發(fā)出的最小的音，指實(shí)際的發(fā)音。Allophones：音位變體。指的是同一個(gè)音位，在不同的單詞中會(huì)發(fā)出不同的音。也就是一個(gè)phoneme會(huì)有兩個(gè)甚至更多的phone。Eg，p在peak和speak中的發(fā)音是不同的。在peak中p的發(fā)音是送氣的，用ph；而在speak中p的發(fā)音是不送氣的，用p表示。所以 p這個(gè)phoneme就有了ph和p的音位變體。3. Minimal PairEg： pig，big，dig，4. Phonological process 音位過程Assimilation指一個(gè)語音受鄰音的影響而帶有了鄰音的某些或全部發(fā)音特點(diǎn) 判斷：Nasalization, dentalization, velarization全部屬于assimilation的不同情況。所舉的例子全部為逆同化。5. Phonological Rules音系規(guī)則（1）Sequential rule： eg. kite是一個(gè)單詞，但是ktie就不能構(gòu)成一個(gè)單詞（2）同化規(guī)則：解讀：/表示在什么情況下，_表示某一音位，如果一個(gè)非鼻音之后有一個(gè)鼻音，那個(gè)這個(gè)非鼻音也會(huì)變成具有鼻音的特點(diǎn)。（3）增音規(guī)則：eg，為什么不定冠詞a在名詞以元音發(fā)音開頭的情況下全部變成an？a pen，a box，an apple，an hour6. Suprasegmental 超音段指語音問題中超出單音音段以上的方面，主要包括：重音，聲調(diào)和語調(diào)。Morphology1. Definition It studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is the systematic study of morpheme. 詞素/語素2. Morpheme （1）概念：很多詞都可以分為更小的成分。如：Chairman，由chair和man構(gòu)成；blackboard由black和board構(gòu)成，birds，由bird和-s構(gòu)成，checking由check和-ing構(gòu)成，disappointment由dis，appoint和ment構(gòu)成。這些更小的成分就叫做morpheme。但morpheme本身不能再做進(jìn)一步分析，如chair不能再分為ch和air，因?yàn)槎吆蚦hair沒有任何關(guān)系。因此，morpheme是最小的語言單位，不能再進(jìn)一步劃分為更小的單位而不破壞或徹底改變其詞匯意義和語法意義。（2）分類：free morphine自由語素：能獨(dú)立出現(xiàn)，獨(dú)立構(gòu)詞，如：bird，check，chair，man，black，borad，appointBound morpheme黏著語素：不